THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 


From  a.  photograph 


by  Moffat,  Edinburgh 


THE 

GREAT    RELIGIONS 
OF    INDIA 


BY    THE 


REV.  J.  MURRAY  MITCHELL 
M.A.,  LL.D. 


WITH  PREFATORY  NOTE 

BY   THE 

VFRY   REV.  JAMES   MITCHELL,  D.D. 


WITH  PORTRAIT 


YOUNG  PEOPLE'S  MISSIONARY  MOVEMENT 

NEW    YORK 


PRINTED    15Y 

TURNBULL   AND   SPEAKS, 
EDINBURGH 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

THE  Duff  Missionary  Lectureship  was  in- 
stituted in  1880,  both  as  a  memorial  of  that 
prince  of  Missionaries,  the  Rev.  Dr  Alexander 
Duff,  and  at  the  same  time  as  a  means  of 
advancing  that  cause  to  which  he  had  devoted 
his  life.  By  the  terms  of  the  trust  deed  a 
course  of  lectures,  not  fewer  than  six  in 
number,  must  be  delivered  every  four  years 
in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  or  in  Glasgow 
and  Edinburgh,  or  in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow 
alternately.  The  Trustees  are  men  belonging 
to  different  denominations,  and  the  Lecturer 
must  be  a  minister,  a  professor,  or  a  godly 
layman  of  some  Evangelical  Church. 

The  author  of  the  following  lectures  was  a 
life-long  friend  of  Dr  Duff;  but  apart  altogether 
from  this  relationship,  no  man  living  has  had  a 
longer  experience  of  missionary  work,  or  a 
wider  personal  acquaintance  with  missions  in 
every  part  of  the  world.  At  a  very  early  age 
he  had  dedicated  himself  to  Foreign  Missionary 
work,  and  no  pecuniary  or  other  inducements 


6  PREFATORY  NOTE 

at  home,  proved  any  temptation  to  abandon 
his  intention  of  devoting  his  genius  and  his 
life  to  the  advancement  of  Christ's  Kingdom  in 
India.  With  his  brilliant  University  career, 
his  great  scholarship,  his  classical  learning,  his 
literary  tastes,  and  his  many  and  varied  accom- 
plishments, he  might  have  fairly  looked  forward 
to  some  honourable  if  not  lucrative  post  at 
home  ;  but  what  things  were  gain  to  him,  these 
he  counted  loss  for  Christ,  and  from  his  early 
only  choice  he  never  swerved.  He  conse- 
quently went  out  to  India,  better  equipped 
than  most,  for  the  faithful  and  successful 
discharge  of  that  work  to  which  the  Lord  had 
called  him,  and  in  which  he  found  ample  scope 
for  all  the  unusual  intellectual  gifts  with  which 
he  was  endowed,  and  for  that  broad  and 
sympathetic  catholicity  of  spirit  which  was  his 
leading  characteristic. 

From  a  very  early  period  he  had  made  the 
religions  of  India  a  special  study.  He 
delighted  in  the  comparative  study  of  these 
religions  and  in  tracing  the  points  of  resem- 
blance between  Christianity  and  Buddhism 
and  between  the  Bible  and  the  Koran — yet 
never  with  the  result,  which  some  have  arrived 
at,  of  regarding  the  Christian  religion  as  but 
one  of  several  systems,  each  of  which  has  its 


PREFATORY  NOTE  7 

distinctive  excellence, — possibly  the  best  of 
them  all,  but  yet  having  no  more  right  to  be 
regarded  as  the  one  truth,  than  any  of  the  rest. 
While  compelled  to  admit  that,  compared  with 
Islam  the  religion  of  Muhammad,  Christianity 
is  making  slow  progress  both  in  India  and  in 
Africa,  he  yet  maintained  that  few  earnest 
and  sustained  efforts  have  been  made  to 
influence  Muhammadans  to  become  Christians. 

When  Dr  Murray  Mitchell  was  appointed 
Duff  Lecturer  four  years  ago,  he  immediately 
set  about  the  preparation  of  the  lectures  with 
his  usual  enthusiasm,  and  in  as  many  weeks  he 
had  six  lectures  finished  on  Paul's  missionary 
journeys.  No  sooner  were  they  completed, 
however,  than  his  thoughts  reverted  again  to 
India,  and  to  the  religions  with  which  Chris- 
tianity was  there  brought  into  conflict,  and  "  the 
Greater  Religions  of  India  "  became  the  subject 
of  his  thoughts,  which  never  after  deviated  into 
any  other  channel. 

For  nearly  eighteen  months  he  was  almost 
exclusively  occupied  with  these,  and  with  such 
absorption  that  he  could  think  or  speak  of 
little  else  until  the  lectures  were  finished  at 
the  close  of  last  year.  They  were  delivered 
in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  in  the  months  of 
January  and  February  of  this  year,  but  not, 


8  PREFATORY  NOTE 

however,  by  him,  but  by  me — for  a  persistent 
hoarseness,  gradually  increasing,  had  rendered 
it  impossible  for  him  to  speak  so  as  to  be 
heard  distinctly  in  a  hall  of  any  size. 

As  it  is  a  condition  of  the  Trust  that  the 
lectures  after  their  delivery  shall  be  published 
and  copies  presented  to  certain  public  libraries 
in  this  country,  in  Continental  Europe,  and  in 
America,  India,  Africa  and  Australia,  he 
immediately  occupied  himself  with  their  pre- 
paration for  the  press,  and  with  the  addition  of 
certain  notes  to  the  different  lectures.  But  this, 
though  full  of  pleasure,  proved  rather  too 
arduous  a  task  for  his  increasing  weakness,  and 
he  reluctantly  abandoned  the  idea  of  adding  as 
many  notes  as  he  had  originally  intended,  and 
even  of  giving  the  final  revisal  of  the  proofs  for 
the  press.  This  has  been  to  me,  as  the 
delivery  of  the  lectures  themselves  had  been, 
a  labour  of  love  which  I  cheerfully  discharged. 
I  had  hoped  that  my  uncle  might  have  been 
spared  to  see  the  volume  published,  but  God 
willed  it  otherwise;  and  on  the  i/j-th  of 
November,  in  the  ninetieth  year  of  his  age, 
after  a  fortnight  of  great  suffering,  but  of 
perfect  peace,  he  entered  into  the  rest  that 
remaineth  for  the  people  of  God. 

JAMES  MITCHELL. 


CONTENTS 

LECTURE  FIRST 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTORY     .  •  •  •  .11 

LECTURE  SECOND 
HINDUISM  .  •  •  •  42 

LECTURE  THIRD 

ZOROASTRIANISM  .  .  •  .112 

LECTURE  FOURTH 
BUDDHISM  .  •  •  J74 

LECTURE  FIFTH 

MUHAMMADANISM  .  2°9 

LECTURE  SIXTH 
THE  RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES     ,  .       251 

INDEX  •  •  -279 


LECTURE  FIRST 

INTRODUCTORY 

THE  course  of  lectures  which  we  commence 
to-day  is  called  The  Duff  Missionary  Lectures. 

They  are  so  designated  in  memory  of  one 
of  Scotland's  noblest  sons,  whose  name  is 
familiar  in  the  mouths  of  us  all  as  a  household 
word,  Dr  Alexander  Duff. 

The  object  of  the  lectureship  is  the  further- 
ance of  the  great  cause  of  Missions  to  the 
Heathen.  I  have  earnestly  considered  how,  in 
these  lectures,  this  could  best  be  done.  Had 
I  possessed  the  eloquence  of  Dr  Duff,  it  might 
have  been  well  to  make  them  a  series  of 
earnest  pleadings,  intended  to  arouse  the 
conscience  and  heart  of  the  Christian  Church. 
For  most  assuredly  the  Church  is,  at  best, 
only  half-awake  in  regard  to  Missions.  What 
said  her  Lord,  when  delivering  His  last  behest, 
as  He  was  about  to  ascend  on  high?  His 
words  were  these :  "  Go  into  all  the  world 
and  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature : " 


12  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

UA11  the  world — to  every  creature."  It  is 
now  nearly  two  thousand  years  since  that 
great  command  was  given ;  and  yet  at  this 
moment  there  are  a  thousand  millions  of  our 
fellow  creatures  who  have  not  even  heard  the 
Gospel.  It  was  a  true  saying  of  Dr  Duff's 
that  the  Christian  Church  has  hitherto  been 
only  "  playing  at  Missions."  She  has  not  yet 
in  any  real  and  deep  sense  taken  up  the  work. 
Even  the  Moravian  Church,  although  nobly 
distinguished  in  this  respect,  has  not  fully 
risen  to  a  sense  of  the  imperative  duty,  or  the 
grandeur  of  the  privilege,  of  evangelising 
the  world.  Narrow-mindedness  and  narrow- 
heartedness ; — all  our  Home  Churches  are 
chargeable  with  these  things.  Remonstrance, 
pleading,  aye,  passionate  appeal,  are  still  in- 
dispensably necessary. 

Yet  all  things  considered,  I  have  thought  it 
well  to  bring  the  subject  of  Missions  before 
you  in  another  way,  a  way  which,  I  would 
fain  hope,  may  prove  instructive  and  efficient. 

"Mine  eye,"  said  the  ancient  prophet, 
"  affecteth  mine  heart."  What  he  saw  hefe/t. 
The  misery  which  he  beheld  around  him 
aroused  his  inmost  soul.  Even  so,  if  you 
could  be  transported  to  India,  or  China,  and 


INTRODUCTORY  13 

actually  see  Pagan  worship,  the  impression  on 
your  hearts  would  be  deep  and  ineffaceable, 
far  more  so  than  can  be  produced  by  the 
most  ardent  and  eloquent  appeal.  I  shall 
never  forget  how  my  own  blood  ran  cold  in 
my  veins,  when  I  first  saw  a  human  being 
bowing  down  to  a  god  of  stone. 

For  a  considerable  time  past,  one  has 
observed  a  remarkable  change  in  the  way  of 
regarding  non-Christian  religions.  For  a  long 
time  they  were  considered  as  little  better  than 
masses  of  unmitigated  falsehood,  and  therefore 
deserving  of  unmitigated  condemnation.  But 
in  recent  days  we  have  been  hearing  of  "  ethnic 
inspiration"  and  so  on.  This  is  a  strong 
reaction  from  the  previous  state  of  things. 
But  every  reaction  naturally  tends  to  run  into 
excess,  and  ere  long  a  reaction  from  the 
reaction  becomes  necessary.  It  is  high  time 
to  assume  a  middle  position — which,  indeed, 
is  that  of  St  Paul.  The  Apostle  held  that 
God  has  "  never  left  Himself  without  witness  " 
—being  revealed  to  all  men  in  the  works  of 
creation  and  providence,  and  in  the  mind  of 
man  ;  but  he  also  held  that  the  nations  "did 
not  like  to  retain  God  in  their  knowledge," 


14  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

and  that  the  consequence  had  been  very  fear- 
ful moral  corruption  (Romans  i.  20-32). 

Another  point.  When  we  study  the 
heathen  religions  we  are  often  startled,  some- 
times shocked ;  and  we  are  ready  to  denounce 
the  teaching  and  the  teachers  as  intentionally 
wrong.  But,  for  the  most  part,  that  is  unfair. 
It  is  far  better  to  think  of  the  nations  as  sick 
in  soul,  and  of  their  religions  as  medicines 
honestly  prescribed  as  remedies  by  well-mean- 
ing, but  unskilled  physicians.  It  is  deeply 
pathetic  to  watch  their  treatment  of  the  sick 
and  dying.  When  the  physician  has  erred, 
even  grievously — pity  and  sorrow,  at  least  as 
much  as  indignation,  are  the  feelings  which 
the  occasion  calls  for. 

My  effort  in  these  lectures  will  be  to  give 
an  unprejudiced  and  true  account  of  heathen 
systems.  And  in  so  doing  I  shall  feel  it  a 
solemn  duty  to  try  to  be  perfectly  fair  to 
these  systems,  and  to  avoid  all  exaggera- 
tion. 

Christians,  and  especially  missionaries,  have 
been  often  charged  with  narrow-mindedness — 
with  being  able  to  see  nothing  but  the  faults 
and  errors  of  heathen  creeds.  If  that  be 
true,  it  is  much  to  be  regretted.  Heathen 


INTRODUCTORY  15 

religions  are  not  all  "  dark  as  Erebus  " ;  they 
are  not  all  equally  dark ;  and  all,  or  almost  all, 
retain  some  elements  of  truth.  My  object 
then  will  be  not  to  denounce  but  to  describe ; 
not  to  expose  but  to  expound. 

The  special  subject  of  the  lectures  is  The 
Great  Religions  of  India. 

It  might  almost  have  been  called  the  great 
religions  of  the  world;  for  all  of  these — with 
the  exception  of  Confucianism — now  exist  in 
India. 

I  have  lately  been  reading  again  the  story  of 
our  acquisition  of  that  great  continent ;  and 
have  been  more  than  ever  impressed  with  the 
lessons  it  so  strikingly  conveys. 

How  are  we,  as  Britons,  to  think  of  India  ? 
With  pride,  some  will  say.  But  a  much  truer 
answer  is,  with  awe. 

"The  existence  of  the  Indian  Empire  has 
often  been  called  a  miracle.  It  cannot  be 
accounted  for  by  any  process  of  reasoning 
founded  on  experience."  So  speaks  a  well- 
informed  and  thoughtful  writer.1  Similarly  says 
another  of  high  authority:  "As  time  passes, 
we  are  in  the  hands  of  Providence,  which  is 
1  Mr  Meredith  Townsend. 


1 6  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

greater  than  all  statesmanship.  Let  us  think 
how  India  was  won,  and  how,  when  seemingly 
lost,  it  was  restored."1 

I  trust  we  all  believe  in  national  responsi- 
bility, and  see  that  Britain's  responsibility  in 
connection  with  India  is  overwhelmingly  great. 
The  hand  of  God  has  put  us  there.  The  eye 
of  God  is  on  us  there.  History  is  strewn  with 
the  wrecks  of  nations,  the  u  ruins  of  empires  "  ; 
shall  a  fallen  Britain  be  yet  added  to  the 
melancholy  list  ?  That  we  are  convinced  will 
depend  on  our  discharge  of  our  national 
obligations ;  and  one  of  the  most  solemn  of 
these  is  in  connection  with  that  great  Eastern 
dependency,  so  wonderfully  given  and  so 
wonderfully  preserved. 

The  astronomer  Kepler,  when  engaged  in 
the  study  of  the  celestial  phenomena,  used  to 
say  that  he  was  reading  "the  great  thoughts 
of  God  "  ;  and  it  is  not  presumptuous  in  us  to 
try  to  read  these  as  also  revealed  in  the 
providential  movements  of  the  world.  We 
are  in  India  for  a  purpose — a  purpose  worthy 
of  God.  Let  us  ever  pray  that  our  presence 
there  may  tend  to  the  glory  of  God  and  the 
happiness  of  unhappy  India  ! 

1  Sir  John  Seeley. 


INTRODUCTORY  17 

Our  subject,  then,  is  the  Great  Religions  of 
India.  In  this  lecture  I  can  do  little  more  than 
give  you  a  sketch-map  of  the  journey  we  are 
about  to  take.  I  shall  simply  enumerate  the 
various  religions,  and  deal  with  them  geo- 
graphically, showing  the  localities  which  they 
occupy  in  India.  Their  character,  history, 
and  influence  will  be  dealt  with  in  future 
lectures. 

Some  of  the  Indian  religions  extend  over 
the  whole  country,  and  others  are  confined  to 
special  localities. 

I.  The  first  which  I  shall  mention — the 
greatest  of  them  all — is  that  which  we  call 
Hinduism,  but  the  Hindus  themselves  call 
Arya  dharma  —  the  Aryan  religion.  It 
extends  over  the  whole  of  India,  though  in 
a  feeble  form  in  Burma  and  Ceylon.1  Its 
followers  are,  in  round  numbers,  nearly  two 
hundred  millions  of  men. 

Hinduism  is  very  far  from  uniform  in  char- 
acter :  in  different  places  very  different  beliefs 
and  institutions  exist.  Generally  it  may  be 
called  a  stupendous  polytheism,  shot  through 
and  through  with  a  stupendous  pantheism.  Its 

1  Ceylon  is  a  Crown  colony,  not  politically  a  part  of 
India. 

B 


1 8  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

grand  all-pervading  characteristic  is  what  we  call 
Caste.  The  idea  of  caste  barely  exists  in  any 
other  nation  ;  but  it  may  be  called  the  distinctive 
mark  of  Hinduism ;  it  sways  the  Hindu  mind 
with  irresistible  power.  The  community  is 
divided  into  separate  classes  or  ranks.  The 
highest  class  is  supposed  to  be  inherently  holy  ; 
the  Brahman  is  a  ugod  on  earth";  the  lowest 
classes  are  inherently  polluted,  and  their  very 
touch  pollutes. 

II.  The  next  system  we  mention  is 
Buddhism.  It  is  of  later  origin  than  Hinduism, 
having  arisen  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  It  may 
be  regarded  as  a  reaction  against  Hinduism. 
It  arose  in  northern  India  and  spread  far  and 
wide  throughout  the  peninsula ;  and  for  many 
centuries  it  seemed  likely  to  prevail  over 
Hinduism.  It  extended  also  into  the  sur- 
rounding regions :  Tibet,  Mongolia,  Siam, 
China,  Japan ;  and  in  all  of  these  countries  it 
continues — and  in  some  of  them  is  powerful— 
to  this  day.  In  India,  however,  for  reasons  not 
very  certainly  known,  it  declined,  until  about 
the  twelfth  century  A.D.,  when  it  disappeared 
from  India  proper,  though  it  continued,  and 
continues,  powerful  in  Burma  and  Ceylon. 
It  is  found  also,  in  a  somewhat  feeble  state,  in 


INTRODUCTORY  19 

the  upper  reaches  of  the  valleys  of  the  Indus, 
among  the  Himalaya  mountains. 

Though  Buddhism  is  usually  called  a  religion, 
it  is  really  atheistic. 

III.  A  system  very  similar  to  Buddhism  is 
Jainism.     The  Jains  now  amount  to  about  a 
million  and  a  half.     They  are  found  chiefly  in 
western   and    central    India.     Like   Buddhism 
Jainism  is  atheistic.     Worship  is  paid  chiefly 
to  dead  men. 

The  most  distinctive  tenet  of  the  Jains  is 
reverence  for  life :  they  would  on  no  account 
put  to  death  any  living  thing.  They  provide 
hospitals,  in  which  worn-out  creatures  of  all 
kinds  are  kept  in  life  as  long  as  possible. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  Jains  have  always 
been  great  temple-builders.  The  finest  temples 
in  all  India  are  those  erected  by  them  on  Mount 
Abu  in  South  Rajputana.  The  Jains  are 
engaged  chiefly  in  merchandise.  Many  of 
them  are  rich  traders  and  bankers.  There  are 
few  or  no  cultivators  among  them. 

IV.  Next   may   come    the   religion   of  the 
Parsis  or  Zoroastrianism. 

The  word  Pars!  means  Persian.  The  Parsis 
are  refugees  from  Persia.  Soon  after  the 
death  of  Muhammad,  his  followers,  the  Arabs, 


20  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

broke  into  Persia,  and  in  three  great  battles 
overwhelmed  the  Persian  monarchy.  They 
gave  their  conquered  foes  the  usual  threefold 
choice  of  conversion,  subjection,  or  death.  The 
readiness  with  which  the  great  mass  of  the 
people  accepted  the  new  faith  shows  that  the 
old  Zoroastrian  religion  had  not  deeply  affected 
them  as  a  nation.  A  portion,  however,  held 
out ;  and  of  these  a  small  body  sought  refuge 
in  Western  India.  They  were  kindly  received; 
they  settled,  at  first,  chiefly  as  cultivators,  and 
have  gradually  developed  into  an  important 
trading  community,  which  has  now  its  head- 
quarters in  the  city  of  Bombay. 

The  Parsis  have  often  been  styled  fire- 
worshippers,  but  they  resent  the  appellation, 
and  declare  that  they  reverence  fire  or  light  as 
being  the  purest  symbol  of  the  unseen  Deity. 
They  have  no  idols.  They  are  not  polytheists, 
but  claim  to  be  monotheists. 

They  are  a  small  but  highly  intelligent  and 
influential  body — in  character  and  manners  now 
barely  distinguishable  from  Europeans. 

A  very  small  remnant  of  Parsis  still  exists 
in  Persia  itself.  They  are  poor,  and  much 
oppressed  by  the  Muhammadans ;  but  morally 
they  are  in  a  high  degree  respectable. 


INTRODUCTORY  21 

V.  I  have  now  to  call  your  attention  to  Islam 
or  Muhammadanism.  This  great  religion  is 
by  no  means  confined  to  India.  It  is  far  ex- 
tended in  Asia ;  it  is  still  farther  so  in  Africa ; 
and  it  is  the  faith  of  nearly  half  the  population 
of  Turkey  in  Europe. 

In  India  itself,  according  to  the  latest  census, 
it  reckons  no  less  than  sixty-three  millions  of 
followers — at  least  one  in  five  of  the  population; 
and  the  number  is  still  increasing. 

Muhammadanism  is,  like  Christianity,  a 
missionary  religion.  None  of  the  religions 
already  mentioned,  with  the  exception  of 
Buddhism,  can  be  so  called.  For  example, 
Hinduism  cannot  receive  converts.  Muhammad 
commanded  his  followers  to  extend  the  true 
faith,  when  needful,  by  the  sword ;  and  every 
Muhammadan  would  gladly  do  so,  if  he  had 
the  power.  We  need  not  wonder  then  if — as 
our  empire  stretches  out — we  find  "mad 
Mullahs" — as  we  call  them — confronting  us 
at  every  step.  These  men — whether  mad  or 
sane — believe  that  in  opposing  the  infidel  they 
are  doing  God  service.  But  peaceful  men  who 
do  not  fight  are  also  eager  to  extend  the  faith. 
It  has  been  said  that  they  seek  to  do  this  for 
political  reasons — desiring  to  increase  the  power 


22  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

of  Muhammadanism,  inasmuch  as  every  convert 
becomes  its  ally.  But  that  is  not  the  sole 
reason  for  their  so  doing.  An  Arab  merchant, 
travelling  in  the  prosecution  of  his  business, 
will  spend  money  and  take  personal  trouble  to 
make  converts,  because  he  honestly  holds  that 
the  belief  of  Islam  is  helpful  towards  a  man's 
salvation.  Here,  then,  is  laudable  consistency. 

Muhammadanism,  like  Hinduism,  is  more  or 
less  diffused  over  the  whole  of  India.  For  a 
long  time  it  advanced  through  war  and  con- 
quest. The  great  conqueror  Mahmud  of 
Ghazni  conducted  ten  separate  invasions  of 
Northern  India,  and  inflicted  unspeakable 
suffering  wherever  his  armies  reached.  One 
host  of  Muhammadans  after  another  came 
from  the  North  and  extended  the  faith  of 
Islam.  The  Rajputs  in  particular  opposed  it 
gallantly ;  and  so,  in  later  days,  did  the 
Marathas  and  the  Sikhs;  but,  on  the  whole, 
the  Muhammadans  have  steadily  gained  ground. 

One  remarkable  result  has  been  that  various 
sects  have  sprung  up,  which  are  partly  Hindu 
in  sentiment  and  partly  Muhammadan;  and 
most  of  these  continue  in  existence  to  this  day. 

Of  late  the  stricter  Muhammadanism  has 
asserted  its  sway  more  than  formerly ;  and 


INTRODUCTORY  23 

from  among  the  lower  castes  the  influx  of 
converts  into  Islam  has  been  very  considerable. 
The  reason  of  this  success  is  not  far  to  seek. 
Every  Muhammadan,  as  I  have  said,  desires  to 
see  converts.  The  lower  classes  of  the  people, 
who  are  despised  and  down-trodden  by  the 
higher  Hindus,  know  that  if  they  profess  Islam 
they  are  sure  to  be  welcomed  by  a  powerful 
community.  Should  the  higher  Hindus  attempt 
to  tyrannise  over  them  when  converted,  their 
rights  would  be  vehemently  maintained  by  the 
whole  Muhammadan  body. 

Of  course  it  is  the  same  thing  if  the  low- 
caste  native  become  a  Christian :  his  rights  are 
vindicated.  But  note  one  difference.  The 
convert  is  welcomed  at  once  by  the  Muham- 
madans — no  questions  as  to  his  motives  are 
asked;  whereas,  before  he  is  received  by 
baptism  into  the  Christian  Church,  a  strict  ex- 
amination must  be  submitted  to.  The  question 
has  been  asked  whether  missionaries  are  not 
sometimes  too  severe  in  their  examination  of 
inquirers.  The  thing  is  possible.  I  believe  that, 
when  once  they  are  convinced  of  an  inquirer's 
sincerity,  they  should  receive  him  more  readily 
than  has  sometimes  been  done,  and  that  there 
has  been  on  the  whole  a  leaning  to  over- 


24  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

strictness.  This  is  far  better  than  over-laxity ; 
but  still,  it  is  regrettable. 

VI.  The  next  religion  I  mention  is  that  of 
the  Sikhs. 

The  word  Sikh  means  disciple.  The  system 
arose  with  Nanak,  who  was  born  in  1469. 
Before  his  time  there  had  sprung  up  in  India  a 
conviction  of  the  infinite  importance  of  having 
a  guru,  or  infallible  teacher.  As  Muham- 
madanism  extended,  this  feeling  deepened ;  for 
the  Moslems  spoke  continually  of  their  match- 
less, infallible  Prophet.  Nanak  had  been  deeply 
impressed  by  Muhammadan  teaching ;  it  is 
even  said  he  had  gone  on  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 
But,  rejecting  both  the  Quran  (Koran)  and 
the  Hindu  Shastras,  he  produced  a  new 
scripture  of  his  own — the  "  Grantha,"  or  Book — 
which  he  hoped  would  harmonise  the  teachings 
of  conflicting  systems.  It  is  morally  a  good 
book,  but  weak  in  thought.  It  is  pantheistic 
in  theology  rather  than  monotheistic.  It 
inculcates  the  supreme  importance  of  the  guru 
or  true  teacher.  The  Grantha  is  in  the 
language  of  the  people — and  this  has  given  it 
a  great  advantage  both  over  the  Arabic  Quran 
and  the  Sanskrit  Shastras.  Nanak  was  a 
mystic  quietist,  and  the  religion  at  first  spread 


INTRODUCTORY  25 

peacefully.  But  by  and  by,  his  successors 
took  part  in  political  movements,  and  one  of 
them  was  executed  as  a  rebel  by  the  Emperor 
Aurungzib.  Whereupon  the  peaceful  Sikhs 
sprang  into  a  host  of  warriors.  Every  true 
Sikh  must  thenceforth  be  a  soldier.  He  stood 
apart  from  other  men.  He  would  not  con- 
descend to  notice  the  Hindu :  the  Muhammadan 
he  was  bound,  if  possible,  to  slay.  The  Sikhs 
by  and  by  became  an  independent  nation ;  and 
in  the  early  years  of  last  century,  under  the 
strong  hand  of  Ranjit  Singh,  "the  Lion  of 
the  Panjab,"  they  grew  very  powerful. 
When  Ranjit  died  in  1839,  the  Sikhs  could  no 
longer  be  controlled.  They  made  war  on  the 
British.  They  were  crushed ;  and  now  this  pre- 
eminently warlike  race  appears  to  be  thoroughly 
loyal  to  the  British  Crown.  They  amount  to 
about  two  millions  of  men,  living  almost 
exclusively  in  the  north-west  of  India,  especially 
in  the  Panjab. 

We  have  seen  that  Muhammadanism, 
vehemently  iconoclastic,  earnestly  proselytis- 
ing, and  generally  victorious  in  battle,  has 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  the  mind  of 
India. 


26  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Even  so  it  was  to  be  expected  that  the  large 
influx  of  Christian  ideas,  and  of  Western  ideas 
generally,  that  has  of  late  been  increasingly 
going  on,  would  tell  powerfully  on  Hinduism. 
"  Ours,"  as  Sir  James  Fitzstephen  said,  "  is  a 
belligerent  civilisation."  The  Hindus  are 
conservative,  wedded  to  traditionary  beliefs 
and  observances,  and  time  was  when  Hindu 
teachers  professed  to  regard  with  supreme 
contempt  the  efforts  of  Christians  to  extend 
the  Gospel,  but  that  time  has  long  since  passed 
away.  In  the  ancient  Roman  Empire  the 
religious  influence  exerted  by  the  Jews  was  far 
from  insignificant.  Seneca  uses  the  strong 
language :  "  the  vanquished  have  given  laws 
to  the  victors." 1  The  great  truths  which  were 
held  by  the  Jews  regarding  God  and  the  soul, 
sin,  holiness,  heaven  and  hell,  could  not  but 
powerfully  affect  the  minds  of  all  thinking 
men.  They  might  be  disliked  by  a  corrupt  and 
frivolous  people;  but,  insensibly,  irresistibly, 
they  carried  the  conviction  of  many.  Even 
so,  now  in  India,  the  unity  of  God,  the  evil  of 
idol-worship,  the  tyranny  of  caste,  the  goodness 
of  God,  the  surpassing  elevation  and  purity  of 
the  character  of  Christ — a  conviction  or  half- 

1   Victoribus  •olcti  leges  dederunt. 


INTRODUCTORY  27 

conviction  of  these  fundamental  verities  is 
steadily  extending.  No  doubt,  ideas  change 
before  institutions,  old  customs  moulder  away 
but  slowly,  even  when  the  beliefs  on  which 
they  rest  have  been  demolished.  Still,  the 
mind  even  of  bigoted  India  is  not  impenetrable, 
and  influential  reformers  have  arisen.  The 
best  known  name  in  connection  with  the 
recent  reform  of  Hinduism  is  that  of  a  Bengali 
Brahman,  Rammohan  Rai.  He  was  a  thoughtful 
and  inquiring  man,  who  studied  both  Greek 
and  Hebrew  that  he  might  be  able  to  read  the 
Christian  Scriptures  in  the  original  languages. 
In  1820  he  published  a  book  with  the 
remarkable  title:  "The  precepts  of  Jesus,  a 
Guide  to  Truth  and  Happiness."  He  in- 
stituted the  well-known  Society  called  the 
Brahma  Samaj.  He  maintained  that  Christ 
was  exalted  above  all  other  creatures. 

The  Society  has  continued  to  the  present 
time,  and  has  branches  over  a  great  part  of 
India.  In  later  days  the  best  known  name 
among  its  leaders  has  been  that  of  Keshub 
Chunder  Sen,  who  was  not  a  Brahman.  He 
immensely  admired  Christianity,  but  maintained 
towards  the  end  of  his  life  the  strange  belief 
that  all  religions  are  true. 


28  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

The  Calcutta  Brahma  Samaj,  on  the  whole, 
makes  but  little  progress  in  numbers. 

The  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  Prathana 
Samaj — literally  Prayer  Society — in  Bombay. 
This  body  has  been  more  under  the  influence 
of  Brahman  leaders  than  the  Calcutta  Society, 
and  its  references  to  Christianity  have  been 
less  frequent  and  less  hearty. 

Many  Hindus  who  see  that  some  reform  in 
their  old  faith  is  necessary  are  by  no  means 
prepared  to  go  to  the  same  length  as  the 
Societies  I  have  mentioned.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  Arya  Samaj,  i.e.  the  Aryan  Society. 
It  was  founded  by  a  Gujarat!  Brahman  about 
twenty-seven  years  ago.  He  rejected  all  the 
Hindu  Shastras  except  the  Vedas.  He 
asserted  that  the  Vedas  teach  strict  mono- 
theism ;  and  idol-worship  he  rejected.  He 
maintained  that  the  chief  scientific  discoveries 
of  modern  days  —  electricity,  steam  boats, 
railways,  and  all  the  rest  are  indicated  in  the 
Vedas.  Dayananda — the  name  he  assumed — 
probably  believed  what  he  said,  but  the  idea 
was  utterly  preposterous;  and  at  a  great 
convocation  of  learned  Brahmans  his  peculiar 
views  were  condemned.  The  Arya  Samaj, 
however,  continues  —  though  scouted  by 


INTRODUCTORY  29 

orthodox  Hindus.  It  is  mainly  distinguished 
for  its  opposition  to  Christianity. 

VII.  There  still  remain  to  be  mentioned 
the  religions  of  the  wilder  races — the  Hill  and 
Forest  tribes. 

I  must  content  myself  with  a  brief  enumera- 
tion of  the  most  important  of  these. 

Beginning  from  the  North,  we  have  the 
Lepchas  in  the  Himalayas ;  the  Khasis  and 
kindred  tribes  in  Assam ;  the  Santals ;  the 
Kols  and  Oraons;  the  Gonds;  the  Khonds 
in  Orissa ;  the  Bhils ;  the  Todas  on  the 
Nielgherry  Hills;  the  Hill  Arrians ;  the 
Karens  in  Burma ;  and  the  Veddahs  in  Ceylon. 

The  religion  of  these  simple  races  is  very 
largely  Animism,  or  spirit  worship,  spirits 
being  generally  supposed  to  preside  over 
nature.  They  are  almost  invariably  malevolent 
— devils  rather  than  angels.  Worship  is  pro- 
pitiation,— deprecation  of  wrath,  or  little  more. 

One  entire  lecture  at  least  must  be  given 
to  these  simple  but  very  interesting  tribes. 
Collectively  they  amount  to  nearly  nine  millions 
of  human  beings.  Those  who  are  by  birth 
derived  from  the  aboriginal  races  may  be 
reckoned  as  about  sixteen  millions ;  but  many 
—  perhaps  seven  millions  —  have  gradually 


30  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

accepted  the  faith  of  the  Muhammadans  or 
the  Christians,  or  have  been  absorbed  among 
the  lowest  Hindu  castes. 

The  population  of  India  is  much  more  than 
double  that  of  the  ancient  Roman  Empire  even 
in  its  proudest  days.  Herein  lies  a  charge 
— a  duty — that  may  well  awaken  the  most 
solemn  and  searching  thoughts  in  the  mind  of 
Britain's  sons  and  daughters. 

But  look  at  India's  history.  We  may  say 
that  her  past  record  is  like  the  scroll  of  the 
book  which  the  prophet  Ezekiel  saw  in  vision, 
written  within  and  without,  "  with  lamentation 
and  mourning  and  woe" — this,  at  all  events,  until 
comparatively  recent  years.  Invasion  after 
invasion  from  without ;  incessant  wars  within ; 
great  famines;  fearful  pestilences; — and  all 
these  scourges  frequently  recurring. 

And  what  has  unhappy  India  had  to  comfort 
her  ?  She  has  had  the  various  religions  about 
which  I  have  been  speaking.  They  meant 
well — those  heathen  systems,  as  I  said  before  ; 
they  supplied  all  the  consolation  they  could ; 
but  oh  how  deeply  does  one  feel  that 
"  miserable  comforters  are  they  all !  " 

And  now  we  British  Christians  are  placed  in 


INTRODUCTORY  31 

India,  as  I  said,  for  a  purpose  worthy  of  God. 
We  are  on  our  trial.  May  our  hearts  be 
exalted  to  the  sublimity  of  our  high  calling ! 
For  we  are  there,  not  that  we  may  fatten  on 
India's  fertility  and  enrich  ourselves  at  her 
expense,  but  that  we  may  rule  in  righteousness, 
and  in  every  way  seek  the  good  of  India.  The 
discharge  of  this  obligation  forms,  in  Lord 
Curzon's  weighty  words,  "  the  supreme  touch- 
stone of  national  obligation."  God  grant  then 
that  we  may  be  able 

"  As  with  some  sweet  oblivious  antidote, 
Cleanse  the  foul  bosom  of  that  perilous  stuff 
Which  weighs  upon  the  heart "  ; 

and  that,  as  far  as  in  us  lies,  we  may  make 
India  a  sharer  in  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
blessings  which  we  ourselves  enjoy — aye,  and 
teach  her  to  emulate,  nay  to  surpass,  ourselves 
in  all  that  forms  the  glory  and  defence  of 
nations. 

You  naturally  ask  :  Does  that  day  of  days 
appear  to  be  still  far  off?  Even  if  it  do  so — 
"  far-off  its  coming  shines,"  and  from  afar  we 
hail  the  gladsome,  waxing  splendour. 

Yet  we  dare  not  pronounce  it  to  be  far  off. 
And  when  it  comes,  we  seem  warranted  in 
believing  that  the  conversion  of  India  will 


32  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

resemble  that  of  the  Roman  Empire,  in  coming 
suddenly. 

Let  us  hear  the  opinion  on  a  kindred  question 
of  a  distinguished  English  churchman,  Canon 
Liddon :  "  Long  before  the  Roman  Empire  was 
Christian,  the  air,  so  to  speak,  was  filled  with 
Christian  ideas.  The  Christian  creed  was 
discussed  and  rediscussed  by  those  who  did 
not  yet  hold  it ;  and  while  stray  conversions 
took  place  in  all  ranks  of  life,  the  mass  of 
the  people  remained  apparently  attached  to  the 
old  Paganism.  In  the  middle  of  the  third 
century  not  more  than  one  twentieth  part  was 
Christian.  In  the  next  century  the  conversions 
came  with  a  rush." 

Ere  long  we  expect  to  witness  such  a  rush 
— or  what  we  generally  call  mass  movements — 
in  India.  Hitherto,  on  account  of  that  singular 
institution,  Caste,  which  binds  into  unities 
large  bodies  of  the  population — to  draw  a  man 
from  out  the  mass,  has  been  like  extracting  a 
particle  from  the  flinty  rock.  By  and  by  that 
strong  cohesiveness  will  tell  in  an  entirely 
different  way;  and,  when  a  considerable  part 
begins  to  move  towards  Christianity,  probably 
the  whole  mass  will  move.  Hitherto  men  have 
come  over  individually ;  by  and  by  they  will 


INTRODUCTORY  33 

come  in  flocks.  Quite  possibly  the  gregarious 
tendency  may  act  only  too  powerfully,  and 
men  may  press  into  the  kingdom  because  their 
fellows  are  pressing.  That  difficulty  indeed  is 
almost  certain  to  arise ;  and  the  churches  will 
have  to  deal  with  it  when  it  comes. 

Still  the  question  presses :  Is  it  likely  to 
come  soon?  Well,  I  had  rather  preach  than 
prophesy ;  but  I  believe  it  will  come  much 
sooner  than  many  expect. 

I  do  not  ground  my  belief  chiefly  on  the  fact 
that  Christianity  is  advancing,  we  may  say, 
rapidly  in  India  ;  for  example,  in  ten  years,  while 
the  general  native  population  advanced  twenty 
per  cent,  the  Protestant  Christian  population 
increased  one  hundred  and  five  per  cent.  But, 
as  one  of  our  best  missionary  magazines  lately 
expressed  it :  "  During  the  last  few  years  a 
vast  change  has  been  effected  in  the  attitude  of 
the  people  towards  Christianity.  A  deep  and 
growing  interest  is  being  shown,  especially  by 
the  young  men  in  India,  towards  the  person 
and  history  of  Christ.  Though,  at  present, 
they  will  have  little  or  nothing  to  do  with 
Church  organisation,  and  shrink  from  the 
thought  of  baptism,  yet  they  devour  with  real 
eagerness  any  literature  bearing  on  the  history, 


34  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

person,  and  work  of  Jesus  ;  and  no  book  in 
India  is  in  so  many  hands  as  the  Gospels ;  and 
no  name  looms  so  largely  on  the  horizon  of  the 
thoughts  of  the  people  as  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ." 

"They  shrink  from  the  thought  of  baptism." 
Are  they  then  genuine  inquirers  ?  Let  me 
briefly  explain  the  position  of  religious  inquirers 
in  India.  People  may  condemn  their  hesitation ; 
but  with  the  censure  they  will  surely  mingle  a 
large  amount  of  sympathy  and  pity. 

As  soon  as  it  is  known  that  any  member  of 
a  family  is  inclining  to  Christianity,  the  whole 
household  is  thrown  into  agitation.  The  women 
especially  fill  the  house  with  wailings.  They 
intreat  the  young  man  not  to  bring  indelible 
disgrace  on  himself  and  all  his  connections. 
He  is  probably  married ;  if  so,  his  young  wife, 
with  tears  and  caresses,  implores  him  not  to 
break  her  heart ;  let  him  believe  what  he  likes ; 
only  he  must  promise  not  to  be  baptised. 
Some  of  the  family  probably  threaten  that  they 
will  commit  suicide  if  he  become  an  "apostate," 
and  the  inquirer  knows  that  they  are  quite 
capable  of  carrying  the  threat  into  execution. 
He  therefore  pauses — agrees  to  wait,  and  in 
many  cases  he  comes  to  think  that,  after  all, 


INTRODUCTORY  35 

the  outward  ceremony  of  baptism  cannot  be 
of  primary  importance,  and  he  can  be  a  true 
Christian  without  it.  So  then,  you  probably 
say,  baptism  is  shunned  because  the  inquirer 
shrinks  from  personal  suffering.  Yes,  he  does 
so  shrink ;  but  many  an  inquirer  shrinks  even 
more  from  giving  pain  to  others.  In  more  ways 
than  one  in  India  conversion  work  is  heart- 
breaking work  all  round.  If  the  struggles  they 
have  to  pass  through  were  only  known,  a  much 
larger  measure  of  sympathy  would  flow  forth 
towards  the  converts.  Many  prayers  are  offered 
on  behalf  of  the  heathen  in  India ;  many  also 
for  native  Christians.  So  far  well :  but  let 
many  also  be  offered  for  inquirers,  amid  their 
great  fight  of  affliction. 

You  will  perhaps  say  that  these  are  a 
missionary's  words,  and  that  on  such  a  question 
a  missionary  is  naturally  too  sanguine.  Then 
let  us  hear  the  opinion  of  Sir  Alfred  Lyall, 
formerly  a  distinguished  member  of  the  Indian 
Civil  Service.  "In  India,"  he  says,  "change 
promises  to  go  on  with  a  speed  and  intensity 
unprecedented."  He  hopes  that  "India  will 
be  carried  swiftly  through  phases  that  have 
occupied  long  stages  in  the  history  of  other 


nations." 


36  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Oh  day  of  days  when  East  and  West  that 
have  been  sundered  for  ages  shall,  with  one 
heart,  worship  at  the  Father's  footstool ! 

I  am  aware  that  it  has  been  said  : — 

"  East  is  East,  and  West  is  West ;  and  never  the  twain 
shall  meet "  ; 

but,  as  an  old  Indian,  I  beg  leave  to  correct 
the  text  and  read  : — 

««  East  is  East,  and  West  is  West ;  and  yet  the  twain  shall 

meet, 
And    Eastern    men    join    Western    men    in    fellowship 

complete." 

The  hopeful  words  quoted  above  refer 
chiefly  to  the  young  men  of  India — the 
educated,  who  can  read  regarding  the  work 
and  character  of  the  blessed  Redeemer.  These 
already  amount  to  a  million  of  men,  and  the 
number  steadily  increases.  But  what  about 
the  uneducated  masses? 

I  ask  with  the  Apostle:  "How  can  they 
believe  in  Him  of  whom  they  have  not 
heard  ? "  Some  have  heard,  and  the  result 
is  cheering;  but  the  multitudes  have  not 
heard,  save  in  a  few  cases. 

Therefore  let  us  "redeem  the  time."  Let 
us  make  up  as  far  as  we  can  for  past  de- 


INTRODUCTORY  37 

ficiencies  by  double  diligence  in  time  to  come. 
Let  us  press  on  with  all  our  various  Missions — 
evangelistic,  educational,  medical  and  female. 

I  would  earnestly  entreat  the  Missions  that 
work  for  India  unitedly  to  enter  into  a  solemn 
covenant,  that,  so  far  as  in  them  lies,  they 
will  secure  that  within  a  definite  period — say 
ten  years — every  inhabitant  of  India  shall  have 
an  opportunity  of  hearing  of  Christ  and  His 
salvation.  As  yet  we  have  only  one  mis- 
sionary— including  those  of  all  Christian  races 
and  denominations — to  about  70,000  heathen. 
Does  this  content  us  ? 

The  enlargement  of  heart — the  devotion 
of  heart — that  this  enlarged  effort  would  bring 
would  come  on  the  languid  Church  with 
surprise,  and  would  bear  her  rejoicingly  and 
victoriously  onward.  Missions  would  not  then 
be  regarded  only  as  a  duty  ;  they  would  be 
taken  up  as  a  delight.  And  then  too  the 
Church  would  do — what  she  never  has  done 
as  yet — she  would  earnestly  lay  to  heart  and 
solemnly  ponder  the  great  commission  and  com- 
mand :  "Go  into  all  the  world,  and  preach  the 
Gospel  to  every  creature."  Surely  the  call  is 
magnificent;  it  is  an  inspiring  battle-cry;  it 
ought  to  make  every  one  of  us  a  hero. 


38  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

The  Church  would  then  take  up  the 
question,  as  a  practical  and  pressing  matter, 
how  the  Saviour's  will  can  best,  in  all  its 
glorious  fulness,  be  speedily  carried  out. 
Then  would  it  be  seen  that,  all  along,  the 
great  difficulty  in  Missions  has  been  not  with 
the  heart  of  the  heathen,  but  with  the  heart 
of  the  Church ;  and  as  Chrysostom  long  ago 
exclaimed,  "  Ah,  there  would  soon  be  no 
heathen,  if  we  were  such  Christians  as  we 
ought  to  be."  For,  when  the  heart  of  the 
Church  is  right,  the  arm  of  omnipotence  is 
free  to  work.  Then  the  impossible,  is  im- 
possible no  more.  Then  mountains  sink  to 
plains ;  and  "  a  nation  can  be  born  in  a  day." 
"The  zeal  of  the  Lord  of  Hosts  will  perform 
this." 

And  now  in  conclusion  let  me  ask  what 
hope  there  is  of  our  country  rising  to  the  high 
occasion.  In  connection  with  the  International 
Conference  of  the  Students'  Volunteer  Mission- 
ary Union  valuable  information  has  lately  been 
given,  and  very  earnest  appeals  have  been  made, 
on  which  we  doubt  not  the  blessing  of  God 
will  largely  rest.  The  single  fact  that  there 
are  now  throughout  the  world  many  thousands 
of  such  student  volunteers  preparing  to  be 


INTRODUCTORY  39 

missionaries  is  a  new  departure  which  is  full 
of  significance  and  full  of  promise. 

The  watchword  of  this  great  International 
Union  is  "  the  evangelisation  of  the  world  in 
this  generation."  Is  that  language  presump- 
tuous ?  I  do  not  think  so.  Let  us  remember 
that,  while  conversion  is  the  work  of  God, 
evangelisation  belongs  to  man. 

Our  blessed  Redeemer  knew  the  meaning  of 
His  own  words  when  He  gave  the  great  com- 
mission already  quoted,  uGo  into  all  the  world, 
and  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature  " ; 
and  in  this  connection  He  added,  "  Lo !  I  am 
with  you  always,  even  unto  the  end  of  the 
world."  In  proportion  as  the  great  command 
is  obeyed,  so  is  the  glorious  promise  fulfilled. 
We  dare  not  separate  these  two  things.  In 
proportion  as  the  Church  strives  to  preach  to 
every  creature,  in  that  very  proportion  will 
she  realise  the  Saviour's  blissful  presence  and 
support. 

"  In  this  generation."  It  does  not  follow  that 
the  sublime  work  of  evangelising  the  world 
could  have  been  performed  in  any,  or  every, 
generation.  Even  the  Apostles,  with  all  their 
consuming  zeal,  could  not  have  evangelised  the 
world  in  their  generation.  They  had  to  begin 


4o  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

the  work,  with  eye  and  heart  fixed  on  the 
final  issue,  and  to  labour  on  with  full  assurance 
of  success  towards  the  glorious  final  con- 
summation. 

Nineteen  centuries  have  passed.  The 
Church  has  grown  immensely  in  numbers.  It 
is  a  most  solemn  question:  Could  she  accom- 
plish the  sublime  work  now  in  a  generation  ? 
Those  who  have  most  carefully  studied  the 
facts  and  figures  answer  Yes.  I  need  not 
quote  the  figures ;  but  I  am  convinced  these 
justify  this  opinion  as  to  the  Church's  power. 
If  I  mistake  not,  there  are  twenty-five  millions 
of  communicants  in  our  Protestant  churches 
alone.  Now,  if  these  churches  were  all  in- 
spired with  such  zeal  as  animates  the  Moravians 
— who  send  to  the  heathen  field  at  least  one 
in  sixty  of  their  number — we  should  have  a 
mighty  host  of  missionaries ;  and  the  blessed 
consequence  would  be  that  by  and  by  all  our 
churches  would  rejoice,  as  the  Moravians  do, 
in  converts  from  Paganism  three  times  more 
numerous  than  the  members  of  the  churches 
are  at  home. 

Let  the  churches  then  embark  heart  and 
soul  in  this  new  Crusade !  It  is  higher  and 
holier  far  than  that  of  the  old  Crusades.  Of 


INTRODUCTORY  41 

them  I  have  no  wish  to  speak  slightingly. 
When  Palestine  fell  under  the  power  of  the 
Muhammadans,  it  sent  a  chill  to  the  heart  of 
Christendom;  and  prince  and  peasant  were 
alike  eager  to  rescue  at  all  hazards  the  holy 
land  from  the  grasp  of  the  infidel.  And  the 
Crusaders  performed  wonders.  They  met  the 
Saracen  hosts  when  these  were  flushed  with 
victory ;  they  rolled  back  the  tide  of  invasion ; 
and  they  established  on  the  far-off  plains  of 
Asia  a  kingdom  that  did  no  disgrace  to  the 
proud  name  of  European  valour. 

But  this  new  Crusade  is  higher  and  better 
far,  and  it  is  expressly  enjoined  by  Christ 
Himself. 

There  has  been  of  late  a  steady  rise  of 
missionary  feeling  in  our  home  churches. 
Certainly  when  we  look  back  to  the  days  when 
the  admirable  Carey  mourned  with  a  breaking 
heart  over  the  coldness  of  Christians  in  obey- 
ing Christ's  parting  command,  there  has  been 
a  vast  increase  of  evangelistic  zeal ;  and  there 
are  many  indications  that  we  shall  welcome  a 
still  larger  one  ere  long.  So  let  us  plead,  and 
so  let  us  expect ! 


LECTURE  SECOND 

HINDUISM 

SOMEWHAT  less  than  four  thousand  years  ago 
the  early  Hindus — the  Aryas,  as  they  called 
themselves — had  penetrated  by  the  passes  of 
the  Himalaya  mountains  into  north-western 
India.  Of  their  previous  history  their  books 
contain  no  account  whatever.  They  seem  to 
have  been  partly  an  agricultural,  but  chiefly  a 
pastoral,  people.  They  had  been  in  close 
contact  with  the  Iranians,  the  ancient  Persians, 
and  were  connected  more  remotely  with  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Aryas  were  a 
gifted,  energetic  and  warlike  race.  They 
consisted  probably  of  several  tribes. 

They  found  the  country  already  occupied  by 
an  entirely  different  people,  of  darker  com- 
plexion, but  not  savages.  War  speedily 
ensued,  and  was  carried  on  probably  on  both 
sides,  but  certainly  on  that  of  the  Aryas — as  is 
shown  in  the  hymns — with  what  we  must 


HINDUISM  43 

call  ferocity.1  The  Aryas  were  generally 
victorious,  and  they  steadily  pushed  on  and  on. 
They  reduced  the  original  inhabitants  to 
slavery — driving  those  who  would  not  yield 
into  the  wilder  parts  of  the  country. 

The  original  inhabitants  were  called  dasyu  by 
the  invaders — who  scoffed  at  them  as  "noseless, 
speechless,  and  godless  " — words  which  merely 
imply  smaller  noses,  a  non- Aryan  language,  and 
a  religion  unlike  that  of  their  enemies. 

The  early  Hindus  were  decidedly  a  devout 
people.  Their  ideas  seem  to  us  very  strange  ; 
but,  from  the  beginning,  and  during  their  long 
history,  they  have  manifested  a  deep  sense  of 
the  superhuman  and  the  unseen. 

So  long  as  the  Aryas  remained  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Himalayas — the  highest 
mountains  of  the  world — those  stupendous 
masses  must  have  greatly  deepened  the  feeling 
in  minds  which  were  generally  of  quick  sensi- 
bility. Almost  everything  to  them  was 
wonderful ;  and  a  feeling  of  awe  and  reverence, 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  worship,  must 
have  been  continually  called  forth.  The 

1  Here  is  one  passage  out  of  a  multitude  equally  fierce  : 
"Hurl  thy  hottest  thunderbolts  upon  them  !  Uproot  them  ! 
Cleave  them  asunder  !  O  Indra,  overpower,  subdue,  slay 
the  demons." 


44  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

exceedingly  vast — the  exceedingly  beautiful — 
the  exceedingly  terrible — all  were  regarded  as 
superhuman,  and  all  were  adored. 

We  draw  our  conceptions  of  early  Hinduism 
from  its  most  ancient  Scriptures — the  Vedas. 
These  are  four  in  number  ;  but  the  first  is 
especially  important.  It  is  called  the  Rig 
Veda — "  the  Veda  of  praise  " — and  comprises 
rather  more  than  a  thousand  hymns.  These 
were  probably  collected  at  least  six  hundred 
years  B.C. — having  been  composed  at  various 
dates  during  a  considerable  time  preceding. 

The  religion  was  not  idolatry  in  the  sense  of 
image-worship.  It  was  nature-worship.  The 
heavens,  the  sun,  the  dawn,  the  fire,  the  winds, 
the  waters — these  were  the  chief  objects 
invoked.  But  their  view  of  nature  was  not 
ours.  It  was  exceedingly  difficult  for  the 
early  Hindu  to  think  of  natural  objects  as  dead. 
The  flowing  stream,  the  rushing  wind,  the 
blazing  fire:  these  all  appeared  instinct  with 
life.  In  other  cases  in  which  life  was  not  so 
obvious,  the  visible  object  was  believed  to  be 
animated  by  an  internal  something — call  it 
spirit  or  god. 

The  gods  were  named  deva  or  the  "  bright 


ones." 


HINDUISM  45 

In  the  Rig  Veda  the  two  most  prominent 
deities  are  Agni  and  Soma ;  though  it  does  not 
follow  that  they  were  so  from  the  beginning  of 
Hinduism. 

Agni  (the  Latin  Ignis)  was  a  being  of  great 
importance.  He  never  indeed  ceased  to  be 
the  god  whom  they  had  so  wonderfully  called 
forth  by  friction  out  of  two  pieces  of  wood  ; 
but  he  dwelt  also  in  heaven,  in  the  sun  and  the 
lightning ;  he  was  a  subtle  power  pervading 
all  things,  ever  ready  to  leap  even  out  of  the 
black  hard  rock.  A  vast  mythology  sprang  up 
regarding  this  marvellous  deity. 

Soma  was  hardly  less  wonderful.  He  never 
indeed  ceased  to  be  the  yellow  liquid  which 
they  had  crushed  out  of  a  particular  plant. 
But  he  was  not  confined  to  earth.  He  was 
present  in  the  gladdening  rain.  And  where 
was  he  not  ?  He  was  intoxicating,  and  there- 
fore dear  to  men  and  gods :  indeed  the  gods 
had  become  immortal  by  drinking  of  him. 
What  could  not  such  a  being  accomplish  for 
his  worshippers?  It  really  seems  as  if  the 
wildest  visions  they  saw  when  under  the  power 
of  intoxication  had  been  accepted  as  realities 
by  those  old  singers. 

Not  by  any  means   so  prominent  as  these 


46  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

two  deities,  but  still  greatly  admired  and  loved 
was  Ushas,  the  Dawn.  In  this  case  we 
welcome  a  sense  of  the  glory  of  nature, 
which  unfortunately  does  not  very  often  appear 
in  the  Vedas.  Ushas  was  not  only  praised  as 
beneficent ;  she  was  also  admired  as  supremely 
beautiful.  Yes,  the  Dawn,  with  her  far- 
streaming  radiance,  coming  back  from  the  land 
of  mystery,  bright,  unchangeably  young,  and 
scattering  the  terrors  of  night  before  her — she 
was  immortal,  glorious,  divine. 

In  the  Rig  Veda  an  exceedingly  high  posi- 
tion is  ascribed  to  Varuna.  This  name  is 
probably  the  same,  etymologically,  as  the 
Greek  ovpavos,  heaven.  It  is  almost  certain 
that,  at  an  earlier  period,  the  place  assigned  to 
Varuna  was  higher  still, — that  indeed  he  was 
the  supreme  divinity.  A  mysterious  presence, 
a  mysterious  power,  and  a  mysterious  know- 
ledge, are  all  ascribed  to  him.  When  two  are 
in  company,  he  is  the  third.  He  loves  good 
and  hates  evil;  he  rewards  the  good  and 
punishes  the  evil.  He  is  the  god  of  the  pure, 
serene,  distant  heaven ;  and  yet  he  is  not  far 
from  any  one  of  us. 

You  ask,  Was  Varuna  the  visible  heaven,  or 
an  invisible  being  presiding  over  it?  The 


HINDUISM  47 

ancient  Hindu  hardly  distinguished  between 
the  two  conceptions.  His  mind,  when  it  did 
not  combine  the  two  ideas  into  one,  oscillated 
between  them. 

Varuna  appears  to  have  retained  his  suprem- 
acy as  long  as  the  Aryas  were  only  in  the 
northern  Punjab.  But  by  and  by  they  spread 
to  the  territory  watered  by  the  Jumna  and 
Ganges,  and  here  he  was  superseded  by  the 
tumultuous  Indra,  the  god  of  the  atmosphere— 
the  region  of  cloud  and  storm.  The  awful 
purity  of  Varuna  had  become  oppressive ;  his 
votaries  almost  trembled  as  they  approached 
him ;  and  they  were  not  unwilling  to  forget 
him.  But  it  was  a  deplorable  fall  when  men 
began  to  say,  "  The  haughty  Indra  takes  pre- 
cedence of  all  the  gods."  To  him  no  high 
attributes  are  ascribed.  "Thy  intoxication," 
it  is  said,  "  O  Indra,  is  most  intense."  "  Im- 
petuous as  a  bull,"  he  rushes  to  the  place 
"  where  the  liquor  flows,"  and  he  drinks  it  "  like 
a  thirsty  stag."  That  rational  men  should  have 
forsaken  the  god  of  heaven  for  such  a  being  as 
this  may  seem  incredible.  How  could  it  have 
come  about?  The  climatic  conditions  under 
which  they  lived  in  the  Gangetic  valley  were 
chiefly  these :  there  were  three  great  seasons 


48  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

—the  cold,  the  hot,  and  the  rainy.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  hot  season  the  heat  was  terribly 
trying.  All  living  creatures — all  nature — 
languished.  Water-courses  dried  up;  cattle 
died  in  large  numbers.  The  suffering  people 
looked  up  into  the  sky.  There  are  the  clouds 
floating  from  the  ocean,  laden  with  the  life- 
giving  waters ;  but  they  move  on,  driven  by 
demons  who  wish  to  chain  them  in  the  recesses 
of  the  mountains.  A  most  tantalising  sight ! 
The  people  call  on  Indra,  the  god  of  the  air, 
pouring  out  to  him  large  libations  of  the  liquor 
which  both  he  and  they  love  so  well ;  and  lo ! 
soon  the  lightning-flash  is  seen.  That  is  Indra 
hurling  his  thunderbolts  against  the  cloud-com- 
pelling demons.  The  thunder  roars,  ah !  that 
is  the  demon,  struck,  and  howling  as  he  flies 
away.  Then  the  blessed  waters  rush  down  to 
earth ;  and  man  and  beast  and  tree  and  flower 
and  all  nature  are  filled  with  life  and  joy.  For 
this  the  Hindus  thought  themselves  indebted 
to  the  god  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  hymns  are  not  generally  marked  by 
primitive  simplicity  ;  they  are  often  laboured 
and  artificial — the  voice  of  a  dull  priest  rather 
than  that  of  a  gifted  singer. 

The  hymns  of  every  Veda  are  called  Sanhita. 


HINDUISM  49 

To  the  Sanhita  there  is  added  the  Brah- 
mana,  which  is  in  prose,  and  was  evidently 
written  much  later  than  the  hymns.  Its 
subject  is  the  application  of  the  hymn  to  the 
ritual.  Added  to  the  Brahmana  come  gener- 
ally the  Aranyakas,  or  forest-treatises — written 
for  the  ascetics  (who  generally  lived  in  the 
woods)  doubtless  at  a  later  time.  Finally 
come  what  are  called  the  TJpanishads.  It  is 
in  these  we  see  the  origin  of  Hindu  philosophy. 
Speculation  becomes  very  prominent  in  these 
books ;  ritual  is  barely  mentioned.  The 
Upanishads  are  very  numerous :  but  only  ten 
or  twelve  of  them  are  especially  important. 
Part  of  them  is  in  verse ;  indeed,  instead  of 
philosophic  thought,  they  often  give  us  poetical 
rhapsodies.  Out  of  them  were  developed  by 
degrees  the  six  methodised  systems  of  philo- 
sophy. The  doctrine  of  the  Upanishads  is 
pantheistic ;  and  nothing  can  be  more  complete 
than  the  change  from  the  ceremonialism  of 
earlier  times  to  the  speculation  of  these  books. 
The  importance  which  they  attach  to  know- 
ledge is  simply  unbounded. 

I  have  been  speaking  of  the  Rig  Veda. 

The  second  of  the  four  Vedas,  the  Sama 
Veda,  contains  very  little  independent  matter, 


50  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

being  nearly  all  extracted  from  the  Rig  Veda. 
It  was  intended  especially  for  those  who  chanted 
the  sacred  texts. 

The  third  or  Yajur  Veda  contains  a  great 
assemblage  of  sacrificial  formulae  Evidently 
it  was  not  produced  in  the  Punjab  but  consider- 
ably to  the  east  of  it,  probably  in  the  district 
of  Sirhind.  The  change  of  view  from  that  of 
earlier  times  is  very  considerable.  Snake-wor- 
ship now  appears.  The  rites  have  multiplied. 
In  the  earlier  books  the  eye  of  the  worshipper 
was  directed  mainly  to  the  gods;  now  the 
gods  are  hardly  mentioned,  and  ceremonies 
are  greatly  multiplied.  Devotion  has  almost 
become  sorcery.  There  was  a  considerable 
measure  of  this  even  in  the  earlier  books ;  now, 
it  is  nearly  all  in  all.  This  goes  on  increasing, 
until  an  entirely  different  kind  of  thought 
arises,  which  appears  in  the  various  philosophical 
schools. 

The  fourth  Veda,  the  Atharva,  is  next  in 
importance  to  the  first.  There  is  a  great 
contrast  between  the  Rig  Veda  and  the 
Atharva;  morally  the  latter  is  immensely  the 
inferior. 

The  Atharva  was  accepted  at  a  considerably 
later  date  than  the  other,  but  was  never  quite 


HINDUISM  51 

universally  acknowledged.  The  divinities  in  it 
are  approached  with  dread ;  they  are  generally 
demons;  and  the  prayer  is  a  deprecation  of 
their  wrath.  The  book  is  full  of  magical 
incantations  and  charms  for  the  destruction  of 
enemies,  the  attainment  of  wealth,  and  so  on. 
The  book  overflows  with  sorcery.  Talismans 
and  plants  are  supposed  to  be  possessed  of 
irresistible  power  to  kill  or  heal. 

If  each  of  these  two  books  represents  the 
belief  of  the  age  in  which  it  was  collected,  the 
corruption  of  religion  must  have  gone  on  with 
a  rapidity  to  which  we  can  hardly  find  a 
parallel.  But  probably  the  Atharva  presents 
the  religion  of  the  lower  and  larger  class.1 

As  the  Aryas  advanced  into  the  territories 
of  the  aborigines,  they  adopted  not  a  few  of 
their  beliefs  and  rites.  The  aborigines  were 
mainly  of  Turanian,  that  is  Tartar,  descent ; 
and  they  were  devoted  to  the  worship  of 
malignant  deities,  with  rites  correspondingly 
dark  and  cruel.  Some  of  the  gods  of  the  Rig 
Veda,  as  we  have  seen,  were  low  enough ; 
still,  they  were  not  demons.  But  a  base 

1  Some  would  say  that  the  Atharva  contains  an  older 
form  of  the  religion,  though  its  hymns  were  later  in  being 
collected.  We  hardly  think  so. 


52  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

demon-worship  ere  long  became  a  part  of 
Hinduism. 

But  we  must  by  no  means  overlook  the 
worship  of  the  dead.  Quite  distinguishable 
from  the  devas  or  gods  are  the  pitris  or  fathers 
(patres  in  Latin).  In  later  writings  they  are 
distinguished  from  men,  as  having  been 
created  separately  ;  but  this  is  not  said  in  the 
Vedas.  Yama,  the  offspring  of  the  sun  and 
the  first  of  mortal  men,  traversed  the  road  by 
which  none  returns :  and  he  now  drinks  the 
Soma  in  the  innermost  part  of  heaven, 
surrounded  by  the  other  Fathers.  These  also 
come  along  with  the  gods  to  the  banquets 
prepared  for  them  on  earth,  and  sitting  on  the 
sacred  grass,  rejoice  in  the  exhilarating  draught. 

Darmesteter  holds  that  the  religion  of  the 
Indo-European  race,  while  still  united,  "re- 
cognised a  supreme  God,  an  organising  God, 
almighty,  omniscient,  moral,  who  was  origin- 
ally the  god  of  heaven."  (Contemporary 
Review,  Oct.  1879.)  Roth  had  previously 
written  acutely  and  learnedly  to  the  same  effect. 

There  is  one  prayer  (so  called)  which  is 
pre-eminently  holy.  It  is  usually  called — from 
the  metre  in  which  it  is  composed — the 
Gayatu.  It  may  be  thus  rendered  : 


HINDUISM  53 

Let  us  meditate  on  the  excellent  glory  of  the 
divine  sun  (or  Vishnu)  ;  may  he  enlighten  our 
understandings  ! 

The  worship  paid  to  the  gods  by  the  Aryas 
consisted  of  prayer  and  praise — which  were 
frequently,  perhaps  generally,  accompanied  by 
offerings.  One  great  offering  was  melted 
butter,  poured  on  the  fire,  so  that  it  blazed 
high,  bearing  the  supplications  and  the  essence 
of  the  offering  to  the  gods.  Another  frequent 
offering  was  the  Soma — the  fermented  and 
intoxicating  juice  of  a  plant  called  Asclepias 
acida. 

Bloody  sacrifices  were  frequent.  Sheep, 
goats,  bullocks,  cows,  and  buffaloes  were 
offered.  But  the  grand  ceremony  was  the 
As"vamedha — the  sacrifice  of  the  horse.  In 
later  days,  when  this  sacrifice  went  on  for 
years  and  when  sometimes  a  hundred  horses 
were  offered,  the  potency  of  the  rite  was  held 
to  be  irresistible;  and,  if  the  worshipper 
desired  it,  it  was  one  of  the  most  powerful 
means  that  could  be  used  to  cause  the  throne 
of  the  mightiest  deities  to  totter. 

The  sacrifice  of  human  beings  was  rare, 
and  hardly  approved.  It  was  called  "  the  way 
of  the  Sudras" — that  is,  of  the  conquered 


54  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

races ;  from  whom  it  had  been  probably 
derived.  It  was  gradually  and  slowly 
abandoned. 

It  is  not  easy  to  state  the  conceptions  which 
the  early  Hindus  connected  with  sacrifice. 
We  see  no  evidence  that  the  offering  supplied 
a  meal  or  feast  of  which  both  deity  and 
devotee  partook;  and  there  could  be  no  such 
idea  when  human  sacrifices  were  offered.  In 
most  cases,  however,  the  offerings  were  believed 
to  gratify  and  nourish  the  deities.  Thus 
Agni  (Ignis),  the  fire-god,  is  said  to  be  "fed 
abundantly  with  butter ;  "  and  it  was  always 
with  intense  delight  that  Indra  quaffed  the 
exhilarating  Soma  juice. 

Steadily  the  complexity  of  the  rites  increased 
till  the  ritual  became  the  most  elaborate  that 
ever  existed.  The  importance  of  the  Brah- 
man— the  man  of  prayer — increased  in  pro- 
portion. The  ancient  language  was  less  and 
less  understood  by  the  common  people :  but 
absolute  exactness  in  the  pronunciation  of 
every  syllable  and  letter  of  the  prayer  was 
indispensable,  otherwise  a  curse  instead  of  a 
blessing  might  descend  on  the  head  of  the 
worshipper.  Ere  long  only  the  man  of  prayer 
could  properly  repeat  the  words,  which  had 


HINDUISM  55 

gradually  become  a  magical  spell,  an  incantation. 
In  no  country  has  sacerdotalism  ruled  so 
despotically  as  in  India,  all  through  its  history. 

The  offerings  were  generally  eucharistic, 
/.£.,  thanksgivings.  There  were  also  expiatory 
offerings,  or  atonements ; — and  much  importance 
was  attached  to  these.  We  may  well  study 
the  darkly  mystic  utterances  of  those  old 
books,  which  even  speak  of  a  divine  being  as 
offered  in  sacrifice.  "The  nave  of  the  world- 
wheel  " — that  which  upholds  the  order  of  the 
universe,  was  believed  to  be  the  ancient, 
mysterious,  awful  rite  of  sacrifice. 

There  were  no  temples.  A  space  was 
marked  out  in  which  worship  was  performed. 
Each  man  worshipped  for  himself:  there  was 
no  public  worship  in  our  sense.  By  and  by 
the  higher  rites  became  possible  only  to  the 
wealthy. 

It  would  seem  that  every  chief  had  a 
purohita,  or  domestic  chaplain,  who  was 
qualified  to  pronounce  the  sacred  texts  exactly. 
But  there  were  also  domestic  rites — performed 
by,  or  for,  the  householder  and  his  wife. 

The  number  of  the  gods  is  not  clearly 
stated.  It  is  often  said  to  be  thirty-three. 
There  is  often  a  confounding  of  deities,  as  if 


56  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

they  were  different  names  of  the  same  personage. 
Among  these  are  a  few  female  divinities ;  but, 
except  the  Dawn,  these  are  not  much  regarded. 
In  later  times,  however,  they  became  much 
more  important.  The  early  deities  are  not 
exactly  immoral ;  indeed  the  Veda  generally 
speaks  in  accordance  with  the  dictates  of  the 
natural  conscience. 

The  Rig  Veda  believes  in  the  soul  of  man 
as  distinct  from  the  body,  and  separable  from 
it.  At  death  the  soul  travels  by  the  path 
which  was  trodden  by  the  forefathers.  The 
good  soul  is  introduced  "  into  the  innermost  of 
heaven,"  where  Yama,  the  ancestor  of  the 
human  race,  banquets  with  the  divinities ;  and 
the  soul  shares  the  delights  of  heaven. 
These,  though  not  impure,  are  coarse  and 
earthy, — the  stimulating  Soma  drink  entering 
largely  into  them.  What  comes  of  the  wicked 
is  not  clearly  stated:  some  passages  would 
almost  imply  that  they  are  annihilated.  So  in 
the  Rig  Veda,  at  least.  In  the  Atharva  Veda 
they  are  said  to  be  consigned  to  dismal,  gloomy 
pits.  In  the  early  books  this  subject  is  not 
much  dwelt  upon.  It  is  otherwise,  however, 
in  the  later  books,  and  a  hell  of  suffering  is 
in  them  clearly  stated. 


HINDUISM  57 

The  Hindus  have  no  historical  sense,  and 
the  dates  we  can  give  to  their  writings  are 
largely  conjectural.  The  period — during  which 
the  ideas  of  the  Rig  Veda  were  generally 
those  of  at  least  the  higher  people — seems  to 
terminate  about  the  year  500  B.C.  It  had 
lasted  rather  less  than  a  thousand  years — at 
least  800. 

The  people  were  doubtless  still  divided 
into  septs  or  clans,  quite  capable  of  attacking 
each  other,  yet  retaining  a  sense  of  unity  from 
their  common  ancestry,  language  and  customs. 
In  several  respects  they  resembled  our  Highland 
clans  in  their  mutual  relations. 

The  Hindus  of  all  grades  always  speak  of 
the  Veda  as  the  foundation  and  authoritative 
support  of  their  religion;  they  seldom  seem 
to  be  aware  how  vast  a  difference  exists 
between  that  system  as  it  was  in  ancient  days 
and  as  it  is  now.  There  has  been  large 
growth  from  within  and  large  accretion  from 
without.  Modern  Hinduism  is  not  a  creed, 
but  a  vast  congeries  of  conflicting  creeds. 
Great  philosophical  systems  have  also  been 
thought  out ;  and  there  is  an  assemblage  of 
such  works,  which  are  held  to  be  possessed  of 
a  large  measure  of  inspiration.  To  these  we 


58  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

shall  refer  before  we  close.  There  are  also 
1 8  Puranas,  which  are  sacred  and  fully 
authoritative. 

But  after  Buddhism  arose  and  spread  widely 
there  was  a  great  reconstruction  of  Hinduism. 

1.  Many  of  the  old  gods  now  disappeared 
and  a  multitude   of  new  ones  came  in ;  and 
they  are  still  continuing  to  come. 

2.  New  doctrines  were  introduced,  for  ex- 
ample,  that  of  Transmigration.      We   cannot 
say    whether     this     important     belief     arose 
spontaneously    or    was    borrowed    from    the 
aborigines. 

No  doctrine  has  impressed  the  general  mind 
of  India  more  deeply  than  this.  A  man's  birth 
and  condition  in  the  world  are  held  to  depend 
on  his  previous  character.  The  succession  of 
births  is,  to  every  man,  virtually  endless.  The 
soul  is  born  into  the  body  of  a  man,  or  a  beast, 
or  a  fish,  a  reptile,  an  insect,  a  plant,  or  a  stone 
— for  even  stones  have  souls.  This  belief  fills 
the  Hindu  with  the  gloomiest  apprehensions ; 
he  thinks  of  the  horror  of  tenanting  the  body 
of  a  tiger  or  a  loathsome  creature  like  a  snake, 
a  toad  or  a  worm !  And  only  when  the  soul 
truly  knows  itself — that  is,  knows  itself  to  be 


HINDUISM  59 

one  with  God — can  the  hideous  process  finally 
cease. 

3.  Another  novelty  is  the  practice  of 
pilgrimage,  />.,  visiting  holy  places.  We  can 
trace  this  from  about  200  B.C.  Rivers  had 
begun  to  be  held  in  great  reverence;  and 
gradually  all  India  came  to  be  covered  with 
tirthas — i.e.  holy  places — on  their  banks.  We 
trace  them  from  the  Himalayas,  south  to  Cape 
Comorin,  and  from  the  extreme  west  of  India 
to  the  extreme  east.  Very  popular  are  the 
sacred  places  along  the  Ganges  from  the  point 
where  it  breaks  out  from  the  Himalaya 
mountains,  down  to  the  spot  where  it  mingles 
with  the  sea.  The  holy  places  along  the 
Ganges  are  visited  at  certain  recurring  times 
by  more  than  a  million — occasionally  by  nearly 
two  millions  of  devotees.  Perhaps  the  most 
celebrated  place  of  all  is  Puri,  in  Orissa,  where 
there  is  the  famous,  or  infamous,  temple  of 
Juggernaut  (Jagannath),  literally,  the  lord  of  the 
world. 

The  idea  is  that  by  bathing  in  a  sacred  stream 
all  sin  is  washed  away;  and  much  merit  is 
acquired  by  the  toils  of  the  journey,  which 
often  extends  to  several  hundreds  of  miles. 
Doubtless  one  reason  for  the  popularity  of 


60  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

pilgrimage — which  is  more  attractive  to  women 
than  to  men — is  that  it  breaks  in  on  the  terrible 
monotony  of  Indian  life.  But  the  evils  con- 
nected with  it  are  exceedingly  great.  In 
Calcutta  I  found  husbands  and  fathers  strongly 
opposed  to  the  wishes  of  their  female  relatives 
to  go  to  Puri  or  elsewhere ;  and  one  great 
cause  of  their  reluctance  was  that,  when  the 
caged  bird  once  escaped,  it  often  could  not,  or 
would  not,  find  its  way  back  again.  Indeed, 
the  perils  of  pilgrimage  are  always  great  and 
manifold,  as  also  are  the  moral  evils  connected 
with  it. 

4.  It  was  mentioned  that  the  early  Hindus 
had  no  image-worship.  When  the  natural 
object — the  fire  or  stream — was  before  their 
eyes,  images  were  out  of  the  question.  But 
a  love  of  symbolism  was  deep  in  the  Aryan 
mind  from  the  first ;  and  in  later  days  perhaps 
the  most  outwardly  striking  characteristic  of 
Hinduism  is  idolatry.  Idols,  idols  everywhere. 
They  are  found  all  over  the  land  by  millions. 
They  are  of  stone  or  metal — brass  being  most 
frequently  used — and  sometimes  of  wood. 
They  are  of  all  sizes — from  the  gigantic  to  the 
most  diminutive — each  idol  is  generally  bright 
and  glaring,  being  smeared  over  with  the 


HINDUISM  61 

sacred  vermilion  colour.  Trees  also,  and  any 
remarkable  masses  of  rock,  are  marked  in  the 
same  way;  indeed,  any  object  may  be  so — 
especially  any  thing  grand,  beautiful,  terrible, 
or  repulsive.  A  distinguished  French  author, 
Bossuet,  I  think,  said  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans:  Tout  etait  Dieu,  excepte  Dieu  lui- 
meme ;  and  the  words  are  equally  true  of  the 
modern  Hindus. 

5.  Even  so,  temples  which,  as  we  saw,  were 
at  first  unknown,  are  now  numberless  :  temples 
of  all  sizes, — some  beautiful,  many  much  the 
reverse.  There  is  only  one  divine  being  to 
whom  in  all  India  no  temple  is  ever  reared! 
I  often  put  the  question :  "  Where  in  your  town 
is  the  temple  of  the  Supreme  Being  ? "  The 
answer  was  an  expression  of  amazement  at  the 
question.  " Temple  of  the  Supreme?  there  is 
no  such  temple."  "Why  not?"  I  asked:  and 
the  instant  reply  was — "Because  He  is  present 
everywhere."  "  Most  true,"  was  my  rejoinder, 
"but  surely  you  could  meet  to  worship  Him." 
I  cannot  remember  that  any  Hindu  ever 
acknowledged  the  suggestion  to  be  reasonable. 
It  was  heard  always  with  surprise — sometimes 
with  scorn.  This  fact  of  itself  reveals  the  abyss 
that  separates  the  Christian  mind  from  the  Hindu. 


62  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

6.  Another  very  important  innovation  is 
that  of  Caste.  Society  is  now  divided  into  a 
countless  number  of  sections  separated  from 
each  other  as  by  insurmountable  iron  walls.1 

We  saw  that  in  early  days  the  Brahman 
uthe  man  of  prayer,"  was  slowly  climbing 
towards  the  pre-eminence  which  he  was  to 
maintain  for  more  than  two  thousand  years, 
and  which  has  not  been  entirely  lost  even  yet ; 
but,  as  time  went  on,  the  number  of  castes 
multiplied  and  the  rules  regulating  them 
became  more  and  more  stringent.  Caste 
observances  are  determined  with  a  view  to 
preserving  religious  purity.  The  greater  part 
of  a  Hindu's  duty  is  contained  in  obeying  the 
fixed  restrictions  as  to  eating  and  drinking. 
A  man  may  believe  what  he  pleases,  and  act 
almost  as  he  pleases ;  and  yet,  if  he  keeps 
caste  rules,  he  is  an  orthodox  Hindu.  The 
laws  of  caste  are  often  as  absurd  as  they  are 
tyrannical.  Thus  into  the  city  of  Poona, 
under  the  Native  Government,  no  low  caste 
man  was  allowed  to  enter  before  9  o'clock  A.M., 
or  to  remain  after  3  P.M.  Why?  Because, 

1  Sir  Henry  Sumner  Mayne — who  knew  India  well — 
characterized  caste  as  the  most  desolating  and  blighting 
of  all  institutions. 


HINDUISM  63 

before  nine  and  after  three  he  cast  too  long 
a  shadow;  and  wherever  that  shadow  fell 
upon  a  Brahman  it  polluted  him,  so  that  he 
dared  not  taste  food  or  water  until  he  had 
bathed  and  washed  the  impurity  away.  So, 
also,  no  low  caste  man  was  allowed  to  live 
in  a  walled  town.  Cattle  and  dogs  could  freely 
enter  and  remain :  but  not  the  Mhar  or  Mang. 

Under  a  Muhammadan  or  Christian  govern- 
ment such  laws  were  of  course  swept  aside; 
but  up  to  this  day  in  some  Native  states  in- 
human restrictions  continue.  Unless  things 
have  changed  very  recently,  caste  still  rules  with 
iron  sway  in  the  kingdom  of  Travancore,  in 
Southern  India.1 

7.  One  truly  remarkable  change  that  has 
taken  place  in  Hinduism  is  the  cessation  of 
animal  sacrifice.  In  early  Hinduism  the  rite 
of  sacrifice  went  on  steadily  increasing  for 
many  centuries,  the  victims  becoming  more 
numerous  and  the  ritual  more  complex.  The 
Brahmanas  (Treatises  appended  to  the  Hymns 
of  the  Veda) — composed  probably  from  1000 
to  800  B.C. — amaze  us  by  the  extent  to  which 
the  sacrificial  system  was  carried,  far  exceeding 

1  Somewhat  more  independence  of  caste  customs  has 
been  shown  of  late  by  the  Travancore  Government. 


64  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

that  of  any  other  religion.  Blood,  blood, 
everywhere  and  always.  The  philosopher 
Hegel  characterized  the  Hindu  mind  as  maasslos, 
i.e.  measureless.  That  quality  is  seen  in  the 
early  sacrificial  system  as  clearly  as  anywhere. 
And  yet,  for  nearly  2000  years  it  has  com- 
pletely disappeared.  It  is  usual  to  ascribe  its 
termination  to  Buddhism,  which  arose  in  the 
fifth  century  B.C.  Vast  doubtless  was  the 
effect  of  Buddhism.  But  Buddha  seems  often 
only  to  have  given  full,  clear  utterance  to  ideas 
that  were  rising  in  many  minds.  Buddhism 
was  largely  an  unavoidable  reaction  from  ex- 
treme sacerdotalism. 

Animal  sacrifice  has  not  indeed  ceased  in 
India,  and  horrid  spectacles  are  exhibited, 
especially  at  Kalighat  in  Calcutta ;  but  these 
are  no  survival  of  the  Vedic  rites;  they  are 
relics  of  the  savage  aboriginal  worship. 

8.  Another  great  innovation  is  the  doctrine 
of  the  Avatars,  or  incarnations  of  Vishnu;  of 
which  there  are  generally  said  to  be  ten. 
The  word  means  descent.  The  avatars  are 
the  descents  from  heaven  of  a  divine  being 
desiring  to  mingle  in  the  aifairs  of  human 
life.  The  original  conception  is  a  striking 
and  touching  one;  the  human  heart  craved 


HINDUISM  65 

the  sympathy  and  support  of  a  celestial  being. 
The  old  Vedic  gods  did  not  supply  the  want; 
there  was  little  in  common  between  them  and 
struggling  human  beings. 

But  while  we  recognise  the  touching  truth 
of  the  original  conception,  we  are  startled  by 
the  fantastic  forms  which  the  incarnations 
assume.  The  deity  becomes  first  a  fish,  who 
plunges  into  the  deep  to  rescue  Manu,  the 
ancestor  of  the  human  race,  and  seven  holy 
men  with  him,  from  the  universal  deluge.  I 
will  not  weary  you  by  a  full  statement  of  the 
other  incarnations.  One  or  two  references 
will  suffice.  In  the  sixth,  Rama  with  the  Axe 
is  said  to  have  annihilated  the  whole  of  the 
Kshatriya  caste  when  they  sought  to  domineer 
over  the  Brahmans.  This  doubtless  points  to 
a  great  struggle  between  the  two  highest 
castes,  in  which  the  Brahmans  were  victorious. 
In  the  ninth  descent  Vishnu  became  Buddha, 
for  the  purpose  of  inculcating  error!  The 
acceptance  of  his  teaching  sent  men  to  hell. 
There  is  not  a  more  dreadful  conception  in 
all  Hinduism  than  this.  The  incarnate  Deity 
teaching  damnable  error!  Yet  this  was  the 
means  the  Brahmans  devised  to  prevent  the 
people  from  becoming  Buddhists  ! 


66  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Another  fearful  practice  was  the  burning 
of  widows  on  the  same  funeral  pile  with  their 
husbands.  There  is  no  authority  for  this  in 
the  Veda;  but  probably  the  rite  had  existed 
for  at  least  2000  years;  and  the  murdered 
women  must  have  amounted  to  millions.  We 
know  that  from  the  battle  of  Plassey,  which 
gave  Britain  the  sovereignty  of  Bengal  in 
1756,  to  1829,  when  the  inhuman  rite  was 
suppressed,  no  fewer  than  70,000  widows 
were  thus  burnt  to  death.  The  Brahmans 
vehemently  opposed  the  suppression  of  the 
dreadful  custom ;  they  declared  that  it  was 
commanded  in  their  sacred  book ;  and  to  prove 
this,  they  corrupted  the  text,  as  Horace  Wilson 
and  other  scholars  have  fully  shown.  Under 
the  influence  of  the  Brahmans  even  a  rebellion 
seemed  imminent;  but  happily  the  British 
Government  stood  firm.  When  I  went  to 
India  in  1838  the  rite  still  existed  in  several 
Native  states ;  and  I  well  remember  the  horror 
I  felt  when  we  heard  of  the  burning  alive  of 
nine  women  along  with  the  corpse  of  old 
Runjit  Singh,  the  "Lion  of  the  Punjaub." 
But  such  deeds  of  darkness  are  possible  no 
longer.  Even  Hindu  opinion  would  now  hardly 
tolerate  the  enormity. 


HINDUISM  67 

But  a  great  change  is  still  required  in  the 
treatment  of  women.  Marriages  are  often 
ridiculously  early.  Recent  statistics  show  that 
in  Bengal  there  were  433  widows  under  one 
year  of  age.  No  widow  of  the  higher  castes 
can  yet  re-marry.  Her  hair  must  be  cut  off; 
she  must  be  stripped  of  all  her  ornaments  and 
never  appear  at  any  family  rejoicing;  for  the 
curse  of  heaven  is  on  her,  and  she  would  bring 
that  curse  with  her  if  she  mingled  with  the 
rest.  No  wonder  if  it  has  been  said  that  the 
old  practice  of  widow  -  burning  would  have 
been  less  dreadful  than  is  their  treatment  now. 
That  would  have  been  a  brief  torture ;  this  is 
life-long  torture.  No  doubt  the  hearts  of 
fathers  and  mothers  often  protest  against  the 
custom,  but  the  cruelty,  though  not  now 
universal,  is  still  general. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  how  worship  is  per- 
formed. Let  me  describe  it  as  it  is  conducted 
over  the  Maratha  country  in  Western  India. 
There  is  an  officiating  priest  at  every  temple. 
He  is  not  properly  a  Brahman.  He  is  called 
the  Gurava.  He  washes  the  idol  every 
morning  by  pouring  water  over  it,  puts  a  red 
pigment  composed  of  sandal  wood  and  oil  on 


68  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

its  forehead,  ornaments  it  with  flowers,  and 
strews  flowers  round  about  it.  He  sweeps 
the  temple,  then  cleans  it  by  smearing  it  every 
seven  or  eight  days  with  cow -dung;  and 
every  night  lights  a  lamp,  or  several  lamps, 
before  the  image. 

The  image  is  often  visited  by  other  inhabi- 
tants of  the  village,  particularly  Brahmans. 
They  pour  water  over  it  and  offer  prayers  to  it. 

This  is  the  public  worship.  What  about 
family  worship?  In  all  respectable  houses 
there  is  an  apartment  called  "  the  gods'  house  " 
— a  chapel,  say — in  which  the  images  are  kept, 
ranged  for  the  most  part  in  rows.  Almost 
always  there  is  a  special  family  idol,  a  tutelary 
god  or  goddess,  which  has  been  worshipped  in 
the  house  perhaps  for  generations.  A  priest 
comes  in  the  morning,  enters  the  chapel,  takes 
down  the  deities,  bathes  them  in  a  pail  of 
water,  takes  them  out  one  by  one,  dries  them 
well,  sets  them  up  again  in  their  places, 
anoints  them  with  red  pigment,  and  offers 
certain  prayers.  He  receives  a  fee  for  his 
trouble.  Or  the  homage  may  be  rendered  by 
the  eldest  son  of  the  family,  if  his  theological 
knowledge  enable  him  to  do  it  properly.  The 
male  members  of  the  family  then  pray  separately 


HINDUISM  69 

to  the  idols.  The  women  and  children  gener- 
ally place  a  few  flowers  on  or  near  the  deities 
and  set  some  fruits  before  them. 

What  do  our  readers  think  of  all  this  ?  To 
us,  as  we  write  it  down,  it  is  a  pathetic 
spectacle.  The  homage  is  sincere;  but  the 
deities  are  of  brass  or  iron. 

A  great  change  in  the  Vedic  life  was  the 
rise  and  rapid  growth  of  speculation.  The 
early  period  had  been  a  stirring  one.  War 
had  been  frequent,  especially  against  the 
"black  skin,"  as  the  aborigines  were  called. 
But  by  and  by,  the  Aryan  supremacy  was 
secured,  and  there  was  time  to  reflect.  The 
race  pressed  down  the  valley  of  the  Ganges 
into  warmer  regions :  and  the  requirements  of 
life  were  more  easily  met.  The  country  was 
then  largely  covered  with  forests;  probably 
there  was  a  wood  in  sight  of  every  settlement. 
In  the  East  there  is  something  very  attractive 
about  life  "  under  the  greenwood  tree."  The 
deep  shade  mitigates  the  glare  and  heat  of 
day.  Rain  comes  in  the  fixed  rainy  season — 
seldom  at  other  times.  All  those  who  were 
disposed  for  thought  rather  than  action,  were 
easily  led  to  choose  a  forest  sanctuary.  These 


70  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

men  would  be  almost  exclusively  Brahmans. 
By,  and  for,  such  recluses  were  composed  a 
number  of  "  Forest  Treatises,"  of  which  the 
most  important  parts  are  the  Upanishads. 
There  are  about  240  of  these — twelve  of 
which  are  specially  important. 

They  have  been  styled  "guesses  at  truth," 
and  no  doubt  the  guesses  are  often  far  astray. 
Professor  Whitney  calls  them  "  the  purest 
twaddle."  But  there  is  generally  sincerity  in 
the  Upanishads,  and  sometimes  earnestness. 
There  is  also  often  a  childlike  confession  of 
ignorance, — everything  seems  so  wonderful  in 
earth  and  heaven.  Another  almost  universal 
characteristic  is — pessimism — a  despairing,  or 
at  least  desponding,  view  of  human  life. 

The  tone  of  these  writings  is  prevailingly 
pantheistic.  When  one  recollects  the  mob  of 
gods  that  jostle  one  another  in  Hinduism  it 
may  seem  strange  to  speak  of  pantheistic 
Hinduism.  Yet  it  is  not  so  strange.  The 
very  multiplication  of  gods  proves  that  the 
Hindu  has  a  deep  sense  of  a  divine  something 
as  everywhere  diffused.  Well,  if  all  Nature  is 
divine,  then  every  part  of  it  is  divine,  and  may 
be  worshipped.  That  of  course  is  not  just  the 
same  thing  as  setting  up  stocks  and  stones ; 


HINDUISM  71 

but  the  Hindu  generally  points  out  the  holi- 
ness of  any  spot  either  by  a  mark  or  an  image. 
Hinduism  is  thus  to  be  characterised  either  as 
a  polytheistic  pantheism  or  a  pantheistic  poly- 
theism. 

Philosophy  enters  deeply  into  Hinduism; 
and  it  is  high  time  that  reference  should  be 
made  to  the  subject.  Anything  like  a  full  dis- 
cussion of  it  in  these  lectures  is  quite  out  of 
the  question;  I  should  weary  you  to  death  if  I 
undertook  it.  All  that  I  can  now  attempt  is 
to  state  the  outlines  of  one  or  two  of  the  lead- 
ing systems  of  Indian  thought. 

Let  me  remind  you  that  ritualism  had  gone 
on  steadily  extending  long  before  speculation 
began.  In  the  Rig  Veda  the  only  attempt  to 
philosophise  appears  in  one  or  two  of  the  latest 
hymns. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the 
Upanishads,  the  treatises  appended  to  the 
Veda,  as  being  mainly  pantheistic  in  tendency. 
Indian  philosophy  was  finally  methodized  or 
arranged  into  six  leading  systems  which  greatly 
conflict  with  one  another  on  fundamental  ques- 
tions. But  on  the  whole  what  may  be  called 
the  reigning  philosophy  is  the  Vedanta.  This 
name  means  the  end  of  the  Vedas  ; — though  as- 


72  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

suredly  it  is  not  the  end  to  which  the  Vedas 
naturally  conduct  us. 

A  short  statement  of  this  philosophy  is 
found  in  the  Vedanta  Sara  (Kernel  of  the 
Vedanta),  which  was  probably  composed  about 
800  A.C.  It  distinctly  asserts  that  the  Vedanta 
philosophy  is  drawn  from  "  the  Upanishads 
and  works  the  auxiliary  thereto."  No  mention 
is  made  of  the  Vedas  in  this  connection. 

A  learned  writer  has  said  of  the  Vedanta 
philosophy,  "  such  a  system,  even  if  it  be 
perfectly  comprehensible,  cannot  be  represented 
by  language."  The  words  are  not  encouraging 
either  to  you  or  me ;  but  let  us  all  do  our  best 
to  understand  the  doctrine. 

"  The  soul  and  God  (Brahma)  are  one :  to 
show  this  is  the  scope  of  all  Vedanta  treatises," 
so  says  the  Vedanta  Sara.  A  great  Upanishad 
says  that  there  was  in  the  beginning  "  only 
one  without  a  second  "  (or  in  Latin  unum,  non 
secundum,  both  adjectives  in  the  neuter  gender.) 

The  following  verse  is  very  well  known : — 

I  sum  up  in  half  a  couplet  of  ten  million  books  the  sense, — 
God  is  real,  world  unreal,  soul  is  God  and  none  beside. 

There  are  two  great  sentences  continually 
quoted;  Tat  tivam,  i.e.  That  art  thou,  and 
A  ham  Brahma,  i.e.  I  am  God. 


HINDUISM  73 

God  is  the  sole  reality.  All  else  is  only 
appearance;  it  seems,  but  is  not.  Its  seeming 
existence  is  owing  to  ignorance,  otherwise 
called  illusion.  God  and  Ignorance  are  two 
eternal  existences. 

This  last  assertion  is  in  direct  contradiction 
to  the  fundamental  belief  that  God  alone  exists. 
But  as  has  been  often  shown,  the  Vedanta  is 
far  from  self-consistent. 

Ignorance  is  possessed  of  two  powers — En- 
velopment and  Projection.  The  former  con- 
ceals from  the  soul  its  identity  with  God ;  the 
latter  power  projects  the  appearance  of  an  ex- 
ternal world. 

There  are  four  conditions  of  the  soul ;  being 
awake,  dreaming,  dreamless  sleep,  and  a  fourth 
state  which  is  beyond  dreamless  sleep.  When 
awake  a  man  is  grossly  ignorant  of  reality  ; 
asleep  and  dreaming,  he  is  freed  from  a  portion 
of  this  ignorance ;  when  asleep  without  dreams, 
he  is  still  farther  freed.  But  the  consumma- 
tion is  the  fourth  state.  Thus  the  world  that 
appears  around  us  is  an  entire  illusion;  the 
world  seen  in  dreams  is  less  so. 

True  knowledge  therefore  is  the  grand 
requisite.  "  He  who  knows  what  soul  is  gets 
beyond  grief."  "  He  who  knows  God  becomes 


74  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

God."1  "When  He  the  first  and  the  last 
has  been  discerned,  then  one's  own  acts  are 
annihilated." 2 

Throughout  we  have  the  strongest  possible 
assertions;  but  of  proof,  of  evidence,  not  a 
tittle. 

It  is  remarkable  how  writers — poets  especially 
of  unquestioned  orthodoxy,  can  unconsciously 
slip  into  the  language  of  pantheism.  Thus 
Wordsworth — 

"  Thou,  Thou  alone, 
Art  everlasting  and  the  blessed  spirits 
Which  Thou  includest  as  the  sea  her  waves." 

But  Indian  Pantheism  is  a  fixed  belief,  calmly 
and  coldly  stated. 

In  connection  with  the  Vedanta  we  may 
notice  the  Yoga  system.  The  term  Yoga 
properly  means  concentration.  The  Yoga  pro- 
fesses to  seek  union  with  God.  Some  Hindus 
assert  that  the  higher  form  of  Yoga  is  a  true 
and  lofty  philosophy  fitted  to  lead  the  human 
soul  into  true  union  with  the  divine. 

There  are  eight  means  of  mental  concentra- 
tion—  which  again,  with  the  usual  super- 
subtlety  of  India,  are  amplified  into  eighty-four. 
One  may  say  that  the  Yogis  expect  to  become 

1  Vedanta  Sara,  18.  * Ib'uL,  143. 


HINDUISM  75 

divine  by  ceasing  to  be  human.  They  employ 
the  most  unnatural  and  painful  postures,  con- 
tortions of  the  limbs,  suppression  of  the  breath, 
and  so  forth.  The  effort  is  not  only  to  become 
divine,  but  to  be  possessed  of  supernatural 
powers.  The  Yogi — generally  a  most  repulsive 
object  in  outward  appearance — professes  to 
work  miracles ;  the  credulous  multitude  believe 
him,  and  supply  his  bodily  wants.  The  man 
in  time  becomes  an  expert  conjurer  and  can 
play  wonderful  tricks.1 

Though  Europeans  who  have  seen  the 
Yogis  are  always  ready  to  express  disgust  with 
them  and  their  professions,  it  is  right  to  re- 
member that  the  principle  of  asceticism  is  so 
deeply  implanted  in  the  Indian  mind  that  the 
Yogi  may  be  a  believer  in  his  own  supernatural 
powers,  as  well  as  in  his  desire  for  union  with 
the  divine.  In  India  I  could  not  help  feeling 
that  the  spectacle  of  a  fully  developed  Yogi 
was  more  painful,  if  possible,  even  than  open 
idol-worship. 

One  is  ready  to  exclaim  that  these  are  the 
dreams  only  of  a  few  self-styled  philosophers. 

1  In  a  book  lately  published — "  The  Mystics,  Ascetics, 
and  Saints  of  India — by  J.  C.  Oman,"  we  have  representa- 
tions of  the  astonishing  attitudes  these  men  assume. 


76  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

But  to  a  considerable  extent  they  have  pene- 
trated the  common  mind.  Often  when  I  have 
asked,  "  Who  is  it  that  speaks  in  you  ? "  the 
immediate  answer  has  been,  "God."  And  if  I 
still  asked,  "  But  if  the  soul  is  God,  how  can  a 
man  tell  lies  ? "  the  Hindu  was  puzzled  to  know 
how  to  answer,  but  would  not  surrender  his 
belief. 

This  identification  of  God  and  the  soul  is 
surely,  as  Tennyson  says,  "  a  faith  as  vague  as 
all  unsweet."  On  intellectual,  moral,  and 
religious  grounds  it  must  be  cast  aside.  The 
sole  existence  being  God,  Sin  is  non-existent. 
Even  so,  we  are  told  that  "  he  whose  intellect 
is  not  confused,  though  he  should  kill,  kills 
not."  The  murder  is  not  real ;  it  only  seems. 

Humility,  a  sense  of  dependence,  reverence, 
prayer,  obedience,  repentance :  these  things 
are  all  impossible.  Love  either  to  God  or  our 
neighbour  is  equally  so.  Love  from  God  is 
the  same  ;  for  the  poor  Soul  is  alone  in  a 
loveless  universe.  The  conception  is  appalling. 
So  much  for  the  Vedanta.  Of  the  systems 
generally,  I  sum  up  in  the  words  of  Dr 
John  Muir  a  very  learned  Sanskrit  scholar1: 

1  A  native  of  Edinburgh  and  the  very  generous  founder 
of  the  Sanskrit  chair  in  Edinburgh  University. 


HINDUISM  77 

"  The  consistent  followers  of  these  systems 
can  have  no  religion,  no  action,  and  no  moral 
character."  So  Pundit  Nilkanth  Shastri  states : 
"  The  effect  on  those  persons  who  have  a 
strong  natural  bias  to  vice  is  such  that  no 
excess  of  wickedness  seems  to  them  wrong." 

Or,  in  the  words  of  so  tolerant  a  thinker  as 
M.  Cousin :  "  You  comprehend  that,  God 
being  all  and  man  nothing,  a  formidable  theo- 
cracy pressed  upon  humanity,  taking  from  it 
all  liberty,  all  movement,  all  practical  interest, 
and  consequently  all  morality."  Such  is  the 
sorrowful  result  of  infinite  speculation.  How 
awfully  true  are  the  Apostle's  words,  "The 
world  by  wisdom  knew  not  God  !  " 

Such  then,  briefly,  is  the  higher  pantheism 
of  India.  A  much  respected  member  of  the 
Brahma  Samaj,  Mr  P.  C.  Mozoomdar,  has 
said  that  "what  Europeans  call  pantheism 
is  a  certain  phase  of  eastern  thought  which 
they  can  never  understand."  That  seems 
rather  hard  on  us  poor  Europeans,  who 
would  fain  hope  that  we  can  understand  what 
is  understandable.  But  we  are  sure  that 
Mr  Mozoomdar  would  reject  as  indignantly 
as  we  do,  much  that  the  pantheists  of  India 
teach.  Thus,  at  the  Parliament  of  Religions 


78  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

held  at  Chicago  a  few  years  ago,  the  gentleman 
who  had  assumed  the  title  of  Swami  Vivcka 
Ananda  had  no  hesitation  in  speaking  as 
follows : — 

"You  are  the  children  of  God,  the  sharers 
of  immortal  bliss,  holy  and  perfect  beings. 
You,  divinities  on  earth,  sinners !  It  is  a  sin 
to  call  you  so.  It  is  a  standing  libel  on  human 
nature.  The  worst  lie  you  ever  told  yourself 
was  that  you  were  a  sinner  and  a  wicked 


man." 


These  are  amazing  words.  Is  there  through- 
out this  wide  world  a  single  religion,  except 
Hindu  Vedantism,  that  would  not  repel  with 
indignation  such  heaven-daring  sentiments  ? 

The  students  of  Indian  philosophy  in  India 
are  generally  Brahmans ;  and  these,  as  a  rule, 
pay  exceedingly  little  regard  to  any  system  of 
thought  which  is  not  Indian  and  in  accordance 
with  the  great  Sanskrit  authorities.  Educated 
men  of  other  classes  in  a  few  cases  may  pay 
some  attention  to  European — or  at  least  English 
philosophy.  Thus  some  years  ago,  the  name 
of  Mr  Herbert  Spencer  was  well  known  in 
India ;  his  reputation  as  a  thinker  stood  pretty 
high.  Several  educated  Hindus  would  have 
called  themselves  his  followers.  Probably  this 


HINDUISM  79 

arose  from  a  belief  that  his  well-known  doctrine 
regarding  the  "  Unknowable "  bore  a  re- 
semblance to  the  Hindu  teaching  regarding 
the  parabrahma.  But  the  resemblance  was 
wholly  superficial.  Mr  Spencer  maintained 
that  the  Supreme  Being  "  must  be  conceived 
as  certainly  not  less  than  personal ;  "  whereas 
the  Vedanta  philosophy  utterly  denies  the 
personality  of  the  Supreme.  Indeed,  the 
Bhagavad-Gita,  one  of  the  highest  Indian 
authorities  expressly  declares  that  we  cannot 
pronounce  the  Supreme  to  be  either  existent 
or  non-existent.  A  state  that  is  neither  exist- 
ence nor  non-existence ;  let  us  hope  that  our 
Oriental  friends  can  form  some  conception 
of  such  a  condition.  I  fear  we  people  of  the 
West  are  incapable  either  of  doing  so,  or  of 
imagining  that  we  can. 

Mr  Herbert  Spencer  also  fully  accepts  the 
great  conclusions  of  modern  science  ;  but  these 
the  Vedanta  philosophy  declares  to  be  vain  as 
the  vainest  dream — mere  appearances  "  pro- 
jected," as  it  says,  "by  ignorance  or  illusion." 

Finally,  it  is  surely  a  remarkable  fact  that 
while  the  great  philosophies  of  Europe — the 
creations,  some  of  them,  of  highly  distinguished 
men — have  hardly  exerted  any  appreciable 


8o  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

influence  on  the  ancient  systems  of  Hindu 
speculation,  the  simple  preaching  of  the 
Gospel — the  doctrine  of  the  Cross — has 
already  told,  and  is  every  day  telling,  with 
increasing  power,  on  the  hoary  creeds  of  the 
East.  It  seems,  indeed,  as  if  we  were  ap- 
proaching the  time  foreshadowed  in  the  days 
of  John  the  Baptist's  preaching,  when  crowds 
were  pressing  into  the  kingdom,  or,  in  the 
words  of  our  Lord  Himself :  when  u  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  suffered  violence  and  the 
violent  took  it  by  force." 

NOTES  ON  LECTURE  SECOND 

CASTE 

is  an  institution  which  seems  to  have  had  no 
existence  in  any  country  but  India. 

Society  is  arranged  in  strata  or  layers,  which 
are  grounded  on  differences  chiefly  of  occupa- 
tion. 

The  classification  is  hereditary. 

In  the  last  Indian  census  report,  three  in- 
teresting views  on  the  origin  of  caste  are  given. 
We  quote  the  view  of  Mr  Nesfield. 

The  Brahman,  or  priest,  set  the  example. 
He  ruled  that  no  one  should  hold  the  name  or 


HINDUISM  8 1 

status  of  a  Brahman  unless  of  Brahman  parent- 
age on  both  sides. 

The  military  chieftain  followed  the  same 
course.  Then  the  upper  working-classes  did 
so.  Then  the  artisans.  And  so  on  down- 
ward. 

But  though  caste  works  tyrannically  in  all 
cases  it  varies  immensely  in  its  regulations  in 
different  places. 

THE  HINDU  SECTS 

as  reconstructed  after  the  fall  of  Buddhism 
about  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  Hinduism 
is  split  into  a  multitude  of  what  are  called  sects. 
These  may  generally  be  classed  under  two 
heads,  the  Vaishnava,  or  sects  that  hold  Vishnu 
supreme,  and  the  Saiva,  that  so  hold  Siva. 

We  need  not  give  more  than  the  names  of 
these. 

The  Vaishnava  sects  are : — 

1.  The  Raman ujyas. 

2.  The  Ramanandis. 

3.  The  Vallabhacharyas. 

4.  The  Madhavacharyas. 

5.  The  followers  of  Chaitanya. 

6.  The  followers  of  Swami  Narayau. 


82  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

The  Saiva  sects  are  as  follows : — 

1.  The  Dandes,  or  staff-bearers. 

2.  The  Yogis. 

3.  The  Gangamas. 

4.  The  Paramahansas. 

5.  The  Aghoris. 

6.  The  Urdhvabahus. 

7.  The  Akas'amukhis. 

The  sects  have  often,  indeed  generally,  run 
into  sad  extravagance.  But  from  time  to  time 
men  of  purer  minds  and  higher  aspirations  have 
arisen,  who  have  sought  to  purify  religion. 

When  Muhammadanism  appeared  in  India 
as  an  active,  proselytising  system,  it  compelled 
attention.  The  Arab  merchants  who  visited 
the  "  pepper  coast "  of  Malabar  were  often 
eager  to  proselytise.  In  particular  their 
vehement  assertion  of  the  Divine  unity  and 
their  stern  denunciation  of  image  -  worship 
could  not  be  heard  without  awakening 
thought. 

One  of  the  most  influential  teachers  who 
were  influenced  by  Islam  was  Kabir,  who 
flourished  about  the  year  1 400.  The  doctrine 
of  the  Divine  unity  had  deeply  impressed  him, 
but  he  could  never  get  rid  of  his  early  Hindu 


HINDUISM  83 

beliefs  regarding  transmigration,  the  avataras, 
and  several  other  points.  One  high  character- 
istic of  Kabir's  teaching  is  its  moral  purity.  It 
denounces  caste,  ridicules  the  $astras,  and 
denounces  Brahmanical  arrogance.  Idolatry, 
it  says,  is  sinful.  The  sect  has  spread  widely 
over  northern,  western,  and  central  India,  and 
has  somewhat  powerfully  affected  Hindu 
thought. 

A  second  reformer  was  Nanak,  born  in  1469. 
But  perhaps  I  said  enough  of  him  and  his 
followers  the  Sikhs  in  the  introductory  lecture. 
Let  us  by  all  means  keep  our  eye  on  the 
Panjab  and  its  energetic,  gallant  people ! 


SANSKRIT    MSS.    IN    JAPAN 

The  celebrated  Chinese  pilgrim  Hinen 
Thsang,  who  visited  India  in  the  seventh 
century  of  our  era,  informs  us  that  great 
numbers  of  MSS.  were,  at  various  times, 
carried  from  India  into  China,  in  connection 
with  the  missionary  efforts  of  the  Buddhists. 
His  travels  were  made  known  to  the  European 
public  by  the  French  savant,  Stanislas  Julien, 
in  1853.  Ever  since  that  time  the  hope  has 
been  entertained  that  some  of  these  ancient 


84  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

documents,  or  at  least  copies  of  them,  might 
yet  be  discovered  in  the  farther  East. 

Professor  H.  H.  Wilson  did  all  in  his  power 
to  stimulate  the  search  for  Sanskrit  MSS.  in 
China.  (See  Journal  of  Royal  Asiatic  Society 
for  1856.)  China,  however,  has  as  yet 
furnished  us  with  no  Indian  MSS.  nor  with 
copies  of  any  such ;  though  translations  of 
Sanskrit  works  into  Chinese  exist  in  abundance. 

In  Japan  the  search  has  been  more  success- 
ful. Some  time  ago,  Dr  Edkins,  the 
missionary,  a  well  known  Chinese  scholar, 
transmitted  to  Professor  Max  Mliller  a  small 
vocabulary  of  Sanskrit  words,  accompanied  with 
a  Chinese  version  and  a  transliteration  into 
Japanese.  Since  that  time  the  subject  has 
attracted  much  attention.  It  was  pointedly 
referred  to  at  the  late  Oriental  Congress  in 
Berlin  in  1881. 

Dr  Mitchell  said  he  now  laid  on  the  table 
about  thirty  documents,  great  and  small,  which 
he  had  procured  in  Japan — mainly  through  the 
kind  assistance  of  Mr  (now  Sir)  E.  M.  Saton, 
Secretary  to  the  British  Legation  at  Tokio,  and 
an  accomplished  Japanese  scholar. 

i.  There  were  five  specimens  of  Pali  MSS. 
in  Singalese  character. 


HINDUISM  85 

i.  Two  volumes  contained  copies  of  various 
Sanskrit  MSS.  and  inscriptions  found  in 
Japanese  monasteries  and  temples. 

3.  Twelve   volumes  were   syllabaries   and 
vocabularies. 

4.  Several  were  dharanis ;    a  specimen  of 
Tantrika   literature   well  known  in   Nepal- 
consisting  for  the  most  part  of  magical  formulas. 

Through  the  kind  help  of  Bhagwan  Lai 
Pandit  and  Shankar  Pandurang  Pandit  he  was 
able  to  supply  a  translation  of  the  first  and 
last  pages  of  a  MS.  as  they  are  copied  in  the 
first  of  the  five  volumes  mentioned  above. 
The  MS.  is  on  palm  leaf.  It  is  in  possession 
of  the  Mikado.  According  to  Bhagwan  Lai 
Pandit,  whose  authority  on  such  questions  was 
very  high,  the  MS.  was  probably  written  in 
Nepal  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  century. 
The  work  is  mentioned  in  W.  Brian  Hodgson's 
list  of  Sanskrit  MSS.  known  in  Nepal.  It  is 
entitled  Ushnisha  vijaya — the  next  to  the  last 
line  evidently  reading  timt—usbnfsba  vijaya 
dharanl  samapta :  that  is,  conclusion  of  the 
ushnisha  vijaya  dharanl.  The  ideas  are  in 
the  most  transcendental  style  of  Buddhist 
metaphysics. 

The  words  slddham  rastu  instead  of  siddham 


86  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

astu,  which  frequently  occur  in  these  docu- 
ments, show  that  no  accurate  knowledge  of 
Sanskrit  existed  in  Japan  when  they  were 
written. 

The  numerous  alphabets  which  are  given  are 
not  by  any  means  exact  reproductions  of  each 
other,  and  probably  belong  to  different  eras. 

The  arrangement  of  the  vowels  and 
consonants  is  the  same  as  in  the  Sanskrit 
alphabet.  The  anusvdr  and  visarga  are  in- 
cluded ;  but  certain  vowels  and  a  compound 
consonant  are  sometimes  omitted. 

The  combinations  of  the  consonants  often 
assume  puzzling  forms. 

The  powers  of  the  letters  are  fully  and 
elaborately  stated  in  Chinese  equivalents  and 
generally  in  Japanese.  In  the  vocabularies 
not  only  is  the  sense  of  the  word  given ;  but 
it  is  always  divided  into  syllables,  and  the 
exact  sound  of  each  syllable  is  supplied — as 
far  as  Chinese  and  Japanese  can  do  so. 

The  statement  given  above  was  read  by  me 
at  a  meeting  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  Bombay, 
2oth  Dec.  1881. 

The  Bombay  Gazette  of  9th  Jan.  1882  thus 
refers  to  the  matter  : — 

uDr    Mitchell    exhibited    a    collection    of 


HINDUISM  87 

manuscripts  and  printed  copies  of  manuscripts 
found  in  Japan,  which  excited  the  liveliest 
interest  as  our  readers  know.  The  suspicion, 
long  entertained,  that  the  Buddhist  missionaries 
who  from  India  carried  their  religion  to  the 
farthest  corners  of  the  East,  must  have  left  some 
permanent  traces  of  their  religion  in  Japan,  has 
recently  been  verified;  and  Dr  Mitchell  is 
taking  home  with  him  a  very  complete  collection 
made  by  order  of  the  Japanese  Government  of 
copies  of  texts  which  are  cherished  with 
superstitious  reverence  in  the  temples  of  Japan. 
Not  the  least  interesting  among  them  are  the 
alphabets  and  syllabaries  in  which  the 
Devanagari  character  is  set  forth  in  forms  that 
are  perfectly  recognisable,  and  which  indeed 
in  some  cases  preserve  distinctions  which  have 
died  out  in  the  vernaculars  of  India." 

DID    HINDUISM    BORROW    FROM 
CHRISTIANITY  ? 

This  is  a  question  of  equal  interest  and 
difficulty.  A  full  investigation  would  demand 
more  time  than  we  can  spare,  and  to  most  of 
our  readers  would  probably  be  tiresome.  Still, 
it  seems  desirable  that  the  leading  points  of 
the  controversy  should  be  mentioned. 


88  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

When  resemblances  to  Christian  doctrines 
occur  in  Greek  or  Roman  writers,  we  are  not 
eager  to  say  that  the  resemblance  implies  a 
transference  of  thought.  Thus,  it  does  not 
surprise  us  to  find  the  thoughts  of  St  Paul  or 
St  John  not  unfrequently  similar  to  those  of 
Plato.  So,  although  Christianity  and  Hinduism 
stand  in  general  very  far  apart,  we  are  pre- 
pared to  find  occasionally  coincidences  between 
the  two. 

But  when  the  coincidences  are  very  numer- 
ous or  very  striking,  it  does  suggest  the 
question  whether  the  one  system  may  not  have 
borrowed  from  the  other. 

The  points  of  resemblance  to  Christianity 
that  have  suggested  the  question  at  the  head 
of  this  note  occur,  for  the  most  part,  in  the 
Bhagavad  Gita — the  Song  of  the  Holy  One. 
This  is  a  very  remarkable  composition,  which 
is,  in  many  respects,  unlike  other  Hindu  books. 

Unhappily  the  date  of  its  composition  is 
uncertain.  The  Orientalists,  Lassen  and 
Weber,  ascribe  it  to  the  third  century  after 
Christ.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  it  earlier,  but 
it  may  be  considerably  later.  It  has  been 
thrust  into  the  heart  of  that  great  collection, 
the  Mahabharata ;  but  that  it  was  originally  a 


HINDUISM  89 

part  of  it  is  very  unlikely  ;  for  it  forms  a  great 
interruption  of  the  narrative.  The  age  of  the 
Mahabharata  itself  is  unknown;  but  as  it 
speaks  of  the  Yavanes 1 — probably  the  Greeks 
or  Bactria — it  is  more  modern  than  many  of 
the  other  Hindu  books. 

The  correspondence  between  the  teaching 
of  the  Bible  and  the  Bhagavad  Gita  has  been 
frequently  referred  to ;  but  the  most  elaborate 
comparison  of  the  two  which  we  know  was 
made  by  Dr  Lorinser  of  Breslau  in  1860,  in  a 
long  appendix  to  his  translation  of  the  Gita. 

He  quotes  a  passage  in  Chrysostom 2  which 
asserts  that  the  Syrians,  Egyptians,  Indians, 
Persians  and  Ethiopians  had  translated  into 
their  own  tongues  the  doctrines  taught  by 
Christ;  and  inasmuch  as  this  is  certainly  true 
of  the  other  nations  mentioned,  he  reasonably 
asks  why  should  we  not  hold  it  true  of  the 
Indians  also  ?  Chrysostom  died  in  407.  If  an 
Indian  translation  of  the  Bible  or  New  Testa- 
ment existed  before  his  time  it  might  have 
been  probably  made  by  the  third  century. 

Lorinser    does    not    mention    that    various 

1  Sarvajna  Yavana  rajan  suraschaiva  viSeshatak,  i.e.  Om- 
niscient are  the  Greeks,  O  King,  heroic  men  surpassingly. 

2  Gospel  of  John,  Homil.     Chap.  i. 


9o  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

apocryphal  Gospels  were  circulated  in  the 
East,  chiefly  among  the  Syrian  Christians, 
from  the  third  century  onwards.  Some  of 
these  attracted  much  notice,  for  example,  the 
Gospel  of  the  Infancy,  in  Arabic.  Doubtless 
the  canonical  and  apocryphal  Gospels  generally 
agreed  in  their  main  assertions  of  fact  and 
doctrine. 

Syrian  Christians  probably  were  in  Southern 
India  in  considerable  numbers  by  the  year  250 
or  so.  So  far  as  we  know  there  existed  no 
unfriendly  feelings  between  them  and  the 
Hindu  inhabitants. 

The  Jews  of  Malabar  also  must  be  taken 
into  account,  though  Dr  Lorinser  confines  his 
attention  to  the  connection  between  the  Gita 
and  the  New  Testament.  He  gives  a  very 
large  number  of  quotations.  He  comes  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  supposition  of  a  connection 
and  a  transference  of  thought  is  "almost 
certain." 

On  the  whole,  notwithstanding  what 
Chrysostom  says,  as  mentioned  above,  it  is  by 
no  means  clear  that  there  was  any  version  of 
the  New  Testament  into  an  Indian  language  ; 
but  a  connection  between  Christianity  and 
Indian  thought  is  at  least  probable. 


HINDUISM  91 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult  for  two  religions 
to  exist  side  by  side  for  any  considerable  time 
without  mutually  affecting  one  another.  No 
two  systems  seem  more  mutually  repellent  than 
Hinduism  and  Muhammadanism ;  yet  the  late 
census  informs  us  that  Hinduism  has,  in 
certain  districts,  powerfully  affected  the  latter. 

Hinduism — through  its  whole  history — has 
been  very  impressionable.  The  Bhagavad 
Gita  itself  is  strongly  eclectic  and  labours  to 
harmonise  three  great  conflicting  systems  of 
philosophy.  The  accomplished  author  would 
certainly  be  much  struck  by  the  teachings  of 
Christianity  if  he  knew  them. 

In  addition  to  correspondences  between  the 
Gita  and  the  New  Testament  there  are  several 
things  which  appear  to  indicate  an  acquain- 
tance with  Christianity  on  the  part  of  the 
Hindus.  The  Mahabharata  speaks  of  a 
"  white  island,"  and  the  worshippers  of  "  one 
God"  who  dwelt  there. 

Again  there  is  the  doctrine  of  bhakti  or 
devotion — affection  fixed  on  God.  This  does 
not  occur  in  early  Hinduism.  The  Vedas 
speak  often  of  sraddha  or  trust  in  the  gods ; 
but  they  hardly  recognise  the  emotional  part 
of  religion.  The  doctrine  of  bhakti  comes  in 


92  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

abruptly.  We  think  that,  if  not  originally 
drawn  from  Christianity,  it  was  developed  by 
contact  with  it.  The  Hindus,  ere  long,  carried 
the  doctrine  to  very  extravagant  lengths. 

The  same  thing  might  be  said  of  the  idea 
of  the  guru  or  religious  teacher.  It  was 
probably  borrowed  from  Christianity,  but 
quickened  by  intercourse  with  Muhammadans. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Trimarti  must  also  be 
considered.  There  is  said  to  be  a  triad  of 
gods :  Brahma,  Vishnu  and  Siva.  This  con- 
ception does  not  appear  at  an  early  date — 
probably  not  till  two  centuries  after  Christ. 
The  remarkable  point  is  that  the  triad  is  after 
all  a  unity — Vishnu  or  Siva  almost  including  all 
the  three  deities.  The  doctrine  does  not 
harmonise  with  proper  Hinduism,  in  which  the 
three  gods  are  quite  distinct  personalities,  who 
often  quarrel  and  fight  together. 

All  we  would  say  is  that  the  conception  is 
very  like  the  thought  of  Hindus  who  had 
heard  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  but  whose  ideas  of  it  were  shadowy 
and  inexact. 

As  the  conclusion,  on  the  whole,  remains 
doubtful,  the  connection  should  not  be  pressed 
in  controversy.  But  two  things  crave  attention. 


HINDUISM  93 

First,  as  the  Gita  stands  alone  and  unapproach- 
able among  Hindu  books  there  must  have 
been  some  adequate  cause  of  its  immense 
superiority.  Europeans  generally  may  call 
this  the  extraordinary  genius  of  the  author  of 
the  Gita  and  the  Hindus  attribute  it  to 
inspiration ;  but  the  probable  explanation  is 
that  which  we  have  given. 

Secondly,  it  is  a  truly  remarkable  fact  that 
by  far  the  greatest  and  best  of  Indian  books, 
which  separates  itself  so  far  from  ordinary 
Hinduism,  comes,  in  its  tone  and  spirit,  so  near 
to  Christianity,  if  there  was  no  transference  of 
thought. 

THE    TANTRAS 

We  now  briefly  refer  to  a  class  of  writings 
about  which  there  is  a  diversity  of  opinion 
among  Hindus.  Some  hold  them  in  very  high 
esteem:  others  reject  them.  They  are  very 
numerous ;  but  only  five  or  six  are  very  well 
known. 

They  assumed  the  form  of  dialogues  between 
Siva  and  his  wife.  The  goddess  asks  questions, 
and  the  god  replies.  The  doctrines  explained 
must  be  communicated  only  to  the  initiated. 

They  inculcate   the  worship  of  the    sakti. 


94  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

This  word  means  power,  but  is  applied  to  the 
wives  of  the  gods  whose  worshippers  are 
called  feiktas. 

Mystery,  magic,  and  sheer  folly  mark  all 
the  books  ;  but  there  are  two  branches  of  the 
worshippers — those  of  the  right  and  those  of 
the  left  hand ;  and  the  books  of  the  latter 
branch  overflow  with  all  that  is  base  and  dis- 
gusting. I  simply  cannot  describe  the  mode 
of  worship  for  the  reason  expressed  by  the 
Apostle  Paul  in  Ephesians  v.  1 2. 

So  far  as  I  know,  none  of  these  books  have 
been  translated  into  a  European  language ;  and 
probably  none  ever  will  be.  To  a  European 
mind  the  grossness  is  utterly  disgusting,  and 
to  many  Hindus  it  is  the  same. 

HINDU    SCIENCE 

The  consideration  of  the  science  contained 
in  the  Hindu  books  need  not  detain  us 
long.  It  is  professedly  of  divine  authority ;  but 
from  beginning  to  end  it  is  a  mass  of  mere 
guess-work,  and  in  most  cases  it  is  utterly 
erroneous. 

First,  take  the  geography.  The  earth 
consists  of  seven  circular  continents  separated 
by  as  many  seas.  The  sea  next  to  the  centre 


HINDUISM  95 

is  of  salt  water;  the  others  are  successively 
seas  of  sugar-cane  juice,  spirituous  liquor, 
clarified  butter,  sour  curds,  milk,  and  sweet 
water. 

Then  comes  the  land  of  gold,  uninhabited. 
Then  a  mountain  10,000  yojans  high  (a 
yojan  is  nine  miles).  Mount  Meru  is  84,000 
yojans  high.  At  its  top  there  is  a  city  14,000 
yojans  in  extent. 

I  need  not  go  on  with  quotations.  The 
reader  would  laugh  at  first ;  but  there  is  no  true 
amusement  in  sheer  folly ;  and  he  would  soon 
get  disgusted. 

But  try  the  astronomy.  The  earth  is  in  the 
centre,  and  round  it  move  the  heavenly  bodies. 
The  distances  of  several  of  the  planets  are 
stated — every  one  incorrectly.  The  moon  is 
twice  as  far  from  the  earth  as  the  sun  is.  The 
sun  rides  through  the  heavens  on  a  chariot 
drawn  by  seven  horses.  Eclipses  are  caused 
by  the  head  of  a  slaughtered  sage  seeking  to 
seize  the  orb. 

From  the  description  given  of  the  interior 
of  the  human  body,  it  is  plain  that  the  simplest 
details  of  anatomy  were  unknown. 

In  history  the  Hindus  were  utterly  wanting. 
The  idea  that  facts  were  to  be  told  seems 


96  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

never  to  have  occurred  to  them.  Sir  Monier 
Williams  has  said :  "  If  a  battle  is  described, 
millions  of  soldiers,  elephants  and  horses  are 
brought  into  the  field,  or,  generally  hundreds 
of  millions."  Sir  Henry  Sumner  Maine  observes 
— that  Hindu  books  are  "  elaborately  in- 
accurate; supremely  and  deliberately  careless 
of  all  precision." 

NOTE    ON    BENARES 

One  part  of  India  differs  so  much  from 
another  that  it  is  not  possible  to  supply  a 
succinct  description  which  will  serve  for  the 
whole.  It  may  be  well,  however,  to  give  a 
brief  statement  of  the  religious  condition  of 
Benares — the  "  holiest "  city  in  India.  Ortho- 
doxy of  the  old  and  strictest  school  is  still  very 
powerful;  the  Sanskrit  Sastras  maintain  their 
place,  and  the  Pandits  teach  what  their  fathers 
taught  two  thousand  years  ago.  The  Arya 
Samaj  has  spread  in  the  districts  around,  but 
has  very  slightly  influenced  the  city.  English 
and  European  learning  are  steadily  advancing. 
Government  education  and  Missionary  education 
are  telling  powerfully.  There  has  been  for 
some  years  a  "  Theosophical "  movement — with 
both  a  Sanskrit  and  an  English  department — 


HINDUISM  97 

both  energetically  conducted.  The  great 
support  of  this  movement  has  been  an  English 
lady,  Mrs  Besant,  who  must  be  possessed  of 
some  peculiar  charm,  or  power  of  persuasion 
at  least ;  for  she  has  induced  the  Maharaja  of 
Benares  and  other  rich  Hindus  to  contribute 
large  sums  to  the  "Central  Hindu  College." 
Many  scholarships  have  been  founded ;  and  in 
two  or  three  years  the  students  have  become 
fully  five  hundred.  We  are  not  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  Mrs  Besant's  Theosophy  to 
venture  on  explaining  it ;  but  one  thing  is 
certain,  it  is  strongly,  passionately,  anti- 
Christian.  Teachers,  both  male  and  female, 
have  come  from  Europe  to  aid  in  the  work; 
and  we  have  no  right  to  say  that  worldly  gain 
attracts  them,  for  their  pay  is  small ;  indeed 
the  Principal  of  the  College  and  two  other 
leading  men  receive  no  salary.  So  we  have 
here  the  remarkable  spectacle  of  educated  men 
and  women  going  forth  from  purely  anti- 
Christian  zeal.  Farther,  every  effort  was 
made  to  win  the  orthodox  pandits — a  temple 
was  built  to  Sarasvati,  and  the  image — elephant- 
headed — of  Ganesa  set  up  over  the  entrance  of 
the  college.  Several  of  the  orthodox  priests 
did  join  Mrs  Besant's  committee  of  management 
G 


98  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

for  a  short  time;  but  very  soon  all  but  one 
resigned. 

It  should  still  be  mentioned  that  toleration 
seems  no  part  of  theosophic  teaching.  One  of 
the  professors  once  accompanied  his  wife  to 
church.  He  was  immediately  informed  that,  if 
such  liberties  were  taken,  he  must  resign  his 
professorship. 

This  highest  place  of  Indian  idolatry,  then, 
still  holds  out  apparently  as  firmly  as  ever 
against  the  Gospel.  But  the  Missions  are  not 
discouraged.  An  immense  deal  has  been  done 
especially  by  female  and  medical  missions,  and 
the  faithful  men  and  women  hold  on  in  calm 
assurance  of  final  success. 

THE    BRAHMA    SAMAJ 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  position  which 
the  Brahma  Samaj  now  occupies.  In  Max 
Mliller's  "  Life  and  Letters  "  there  is  a  letter  of 
his  nearly  five  pages  long  addressed  to  Mr  P. 
C.  Mozoomdar,  in  which  he  and  his  friends 
are  earnestly  exhorted  to  declare  themselves 
Christians.  Many  of  the  leading  members  had 
frequently  and  strongly  expressed  their  admira- 
tion of  Christ;  let  them  then,  as  a  body,  de- 
clare themselves  His  disciples.  Mr  Mozoomdar 


HINDUISM 


99 


declined  to  comply  with  the  request,  and 
the  Samaj  generally  has  remained  as  it 
was. 

Max  Miiller  makes  no  mention  of  baptism ; 
and  we  cannot  say  whether  he  would  have 
dispensed  with  the  initiatory  rite  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  To  us  it  appears  indispensable, 
as  prescribed  by  divine  authority.  But  wholly 
apart  from  this,  it  is  of  the  highest  possible 
value.  It  is  a  test  of  true  discipleship.  As 
long  as  a  Hindu  inquirer  remains  unbaptised, 
he  is  held  to  be  a  good  Hindu.  Does  he 
believe  in  Christ  ?  What  matters  that  ?  His 
caste  is  as  pure  as  ever;  and  he  goes  in  and 
out  among  his  relatives  and  friends  as  before. 
At  this  moment  multitudes  of  Hindus  admire 
Christ — who,  indeed,  of  pureminded  men  can 
do  otherwise  ?  But  baptism  alters  the  condition 
of  things  entirely.  The  baptised  man  is  ac- 
counted an  apostate ;  he  is  polluted  and  pollut- 
ing. Thus,  to  be  baptised  is  to  take  up  Christ's 
Cross  and  follow  Him  through  good  report  and 
bad  report.  This  is  a  test  of  true  discipleship, 
laid  down  by  Christ  Himself,  which  we  dare 
not  alter.  But  perhaps  Max  Muller  would  not 
have  dispensed  with  the  rite;  or  he  might 
have  left  it  an  open  question. 


loo  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 


RECENT    HINDU    REFORMERS 

Throughout  its  entire  history  Hinduism  has 
been  powerfully  affected  by  its  environment. 
On  first  entering  India  it  borrowed  largely 
from  the  original  creeds.  In  later  days 
Buddhism  was  nominally  expelled ;  but  it 
left  much  of  its  spirit  behind.  Muhammadan- 
ism  has  influenced  Hinduism  in  the  South, 
and  still  more  extensively  in  the  North. 

It  was  therefore  to  be  expected  that  Hindu- 
ism would  sustain  important  changes  when 
brought — as  it  is  in  our  day — into  close 
contact  with  Christianity  and  modern  European 
thought.  Even  the  great  mass  of  the  people 
knows  something  of  the  Gospel;  and  those 
who  have  received  an  education  in  English 
cannot  possibly  remain  ignorant  of  its  leading 
features.  Every  educated  Hindu  is  thus  com- 
pelled to  compare  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
with  those  of  Hinduism ;  and,  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases  he  learns  to  think  as  his 
fathers  never  thought.  Even  if  he  does  not 
accept  the  full  teaching  of  Christianity,  there 
are  many  of  its  doctrines  that  shine  in  their 
own  light  and  carry  their  own  clear  evidence 
with  them. 


HINDUISM  101 

But  the  desire  of  every  true-hearted  Hindu 
who  has  adopted  Christianity  even  partially 
must  be  that  the  defects  of  his  own  religion 
may  be  supplied  and  its  errors,  if  possible, 
corrected.  Many  men  have  so  felt.  We 
may  select  the  names  of  four  who  earnestly 
sought  the  reformation  of  Hinduism. 

The  first  was  Rammohun  Roy,  a  Bengali 
Brahman  born  in  1774.  Circumstances  led 
him  first  to  study  Persian  and  Arabic  and 
then  Sanskrit.  The  strict  monotheism  of  the 
Quran  impressed  him,  and  he  wrote  a  tract 
against  idolatry.  He  then  studied  English, 
and  in  1817  directed  his  thoughts  earnestly 
towards  the  Christian  faith.  He  became  more 
and  more  desirous  of  the  reform  of  Hinduism ; 
and  in  1820  he  published  in  English  and 
Bengali  a  book  entitled  "The  Precepts  of 
Jesus,  the  Guide  to  Peace  and  Happiness." 

In  1830  he  took  the  important  step  of 
opening  a  hall  for  public  worship.  Hitherto 
united  public  prayer  had  been  unknown  to 
the  Hindus.  The  Society  which  he  formed 
he  called  the  Brahma  Samaj  (usually  written 
Brahmo  Samaj),  meaning  "  Assembly  of 
believers  in  Brahma  (God)." 

Much  notice  was  now  taken  of  him  and  he 


102  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

received  the  title  of  Raja;  but  he  had  nobly 
borne  not  a  little  persecution.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  us  Scotchmen  to  know  that  he  said: 
"  I  was  deserted  by  every  person  except  two 
or  three  Scotch  friends,  to  whom,  and  the 
nation  to  which  they  belong,  I  always  feel 
grateful."  Dr  Duff  and  his  missionary 
associates  showed  him  all  possible  sympathy 
in  his  trials ;  and,  when  the  Missionary  Institu- 
tion was  opened  in  1830,  Rammohun  Roy 
heartily  returned  that  sympathy. 

He  died  at  Bristol  in  England  in  1833. 

Debendernath  Tagore  was  born  in  1813. 
He  joined  the  Samaj  in  1841,  and  imparted 
to  it  a  regular  constitution  introducing  valu- 
able rules.  The  Society  was  fully  organised 
by  1844.  Every  member  bound  himself  to 
abandon  idolatry  and  pray  daily  to  the  one 
true  God.  In  1850  the  infallibility  of  the 
Vedas  was  rejected  by  Debendernath  and  a 
majority  of  the  members.  The  Samaj  also 
rejected  belief  in  any  written  revelation. 

J.  Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  born  in  1830, 
was  not  a  Brahman.  He  joined  the  Samaj  in 
1857.  He  taught  a  school  in  Bengali,  and 
lectured  to  the  Samaj  in  English.  But  Keshub 
advocated  reforms  for  which  Debendernath 


HINDUISM  103 

was  not  prepared.  Ardent,  ambitious,  self- 
reliant,  Keshub  became  uncontrollable,  and 
when  in  1864  he  celebrated  a  marriage 
between  two  persons  of  different  castes,  De- 
bendernath  told  him  that  their  co-operation 
must  cease.  Keshub  and  his  friends  formed 
a  new  Society  in  1866;  and,  by  August  1869, 
they  had  built  and  opened  a  place  of  public 
worship  of  their  own. 

Keshub  called  his  new  Society  the  "  Brahmo 
Samaj  of  India."  He  gave  public  lectures. 
One  delivered  on  May  1866  attracted  immense 
attention  both  in  India  and  Britain.  It  was 
believed  to  indicate  on  Keshub's  part  a  strong 
leaning  to  Christianity.  But  another  lecture 
with  the  title  "  Great  Men,"  delivered  a  few 
months  later,  was  held  to  imply  a  retractation 
of  some  of  the  sentiments  he  had  avowed 
regarding  Christ.  There  was  much  ardour — 
much  movement,  in  the  new  Samaj.  Religious 
festivals,  attended  with  no  small  excitement, 
began  to  be  held  from  November  1867. 
Energetic  efforts  were  made  towards  practical 
reform.  Under  its  influence  a  Marriage  Act 
was  passed  by  Government,  which  legalised 
for  Brahmos  the  union  of  persons  of  different 
castes,  and  which  fixed  fourteen  as  the  lowest 


104  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

age  for  the  marriage  of  females.  Efforts  also 
were  made  for  the  promotion  of  temperance. 

By  this  time  Keshub  had  visited  Britain. 
He  did  so  early  in  1870;  and  in  April  of  that 
year  a  public  meeting  was  held  in  London  to 
welcome  him ;  in  which  Dean  Stanley,  Lord 
Lawrence,  Dr  James  Martineau  and  other  dis- 
tinguished men  took  part.  He  was  also  granted 
a  private  interview  with  the  Queen.  He 
preached  in  a  good  many  places  of  worship 
connected  with  the  Unitarians. 

By  1873  the  autocracy  exercised  by  Mr  Sen 
was  felt  somewhat  heavily.  He  believed  in 
"  Great  Men,"  and  held  that,  from  time  to  time, 
Divine  Providence  endows  some  men  with 
special  power  to  purify  and  exalt  religion  ;  and 
he  expected  to  be  acknowledged  as  a  leader 
remarkably  commissioned. 

He  initiated  several  valuable  reforms,  but 
was  opposed  to  other  innovations  demanded  by 
not  a  few.  He  held,  for  instance,  that  in  the 
emancipation  of  women,  many  were  hurrying 
on  too  fast.  In  this,  he  lost  the  support  of 
the  Brahmo  ladies  generally.  A  crisis  was 
inevitable.  Its  coming  was  hastened  by  the 
marriage  of  his  daughter  to  the  Raja  of  Kuch 
Behar.  Both  bridegroom  and  bride  were  under 


HINDUISM  105 

the  earliest  age  fixed  by  Mr  Sen  himself  as  al- 
lowable. Vehement  remonstrances  assailed  him. 
A  party  proposed  his  deposition  as  minister; 
and  only  by  calling  in  the  police  was  he  able 
to  retain  possession  of  the  Brahmo  Mandir. 

A  great  revolt  succeeded ;  and  a  new  Samaj 
was  regularly  constituted.  An  appeal  was 
made  to  the  provincial  Societies,  and  fully  two 
thirds  of  these  joined  the  new  body. 

It  was  a  terrible  blow  to  Mr  Sen.  One 
cannot  help  feeling  deeply  for  him.  He  was 
not  faultless;  he  was  ambitious,  and  probably 
despotic;  but  he  had  rendered  very  signal 
service  to  the  cause  of  truth  and  freedom  and 
righteousness ;  and  now — for  the  strife  waxed 
scandalously  hot — he  was  attacked  in  the 
bitterest  language  by  his  former  disciples,  and 
every  thing  he  did  was  ascribed  to  low  and 
sordid  motives.  Keshub  retaliated,  and  repaid 
scorn  with  scorn.  The  departure,  however, 
of  so  many  of  his  associates  was  in  one  sense 
a  relief  to  him ;  he  could  now  carry  out  his 
ideas  without  opposition.  In  1880  the  Society 
was  called  the  uNew  Dispensation,"  and  in  a 
public  lecture  he  claimed  equality  for  it  with 
Judaism  and  Christianity,  and  for  himself  a 
divine  commission  and  "singular"  authority. 


io6  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

The  religion,  he  said,  was  "the  wonderful 
solvent  which  fuses  all  Dispensations  into  a 
new  chemical  (sic)  compound."  Mr  Sen  now 
declared  that  all  religions  are  true — a  startling 
proposition,  contradictory  of  much  he  had 
previously  maintained. 

As  early  as  1861  a  great  leaning  to  Ritualism 
had  been  observed  in  the  services  of  the  Samaj, 
and  this  greatly  increased  under  the  "new 
dispensation."  An  attached  friend  and 
follower  wrote  in  August  1881,  "Keshub  is 
continually  becoming  more  metaphysical  and 
mystical.  Recently  he  has  very  much  given 
himself  to  mysticism.  There  has  been  a  good 
deal  of  flags,  flowers,  fires,  and  sacraments  of 
all  kinds."  Perhaps  I  am  giving  too  many  of 
such  details ;  but  Mr  Sen's  career,  when  care- 
fully studied,  seems  to  me  to  be  variously  and 
sorrowfully  instructive.  By  and  by  he  died ; 
but  who  could  be  his  successor?  Naturally 
his  accomplished  relative  and  friend  Mr  P. 
C.  Mozoomdar  should  have  been;  but  bitter 
disputes  arose  which  I  have  no  heart  to 
relate.  The  Samaj  continues :  and  according 
to  the  Government  census  had  gained  somewhat 
in  numbers  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  now 
— we  presume,  including  all  its  branches,  has 


HINDUISM  107 

4080  members — a  poor  account  of  what  Mr 
Sen  used  confidently  to  designate  as  the  Church 
of  the  future. 

The  fourth  name  to  be  mentioned  in  this 
connection  is  Dayananda  Sarasvati.  He  was 
a  Gujarati  Brahman  born  in  Katiawar  in  W. 
India.  He  began  to  attract  attention  about 
1880.  He  maintained  that  of  the  Hindu 
Shastras  only  the  Vedas  are  authoritative  and 
that  they  teach  strict  monotheism.  He  re- 
jected caste  and  idolatry.  He  forbade  child- 
marriage,  and  allowed  widows  to  remarry.  So 
far  then  was  the  reformer.  He  said  he  found 
in  the  Vedas  the  elements  of  every  kind  of 
knowledge.  All  modern  inventions  were  in- 
dicated there — railways,  telegraphs,  steamships, 
balloons,  etc.,  and  many  others  that  are  still 
to  be  discovered.  He  prescribed  improvements 
in  machines  now  used.  By  a  rightly  con- 
structed balloon,  he  said,  a  man  might  visit  the 
stars,  as  he  now  visits  a  neighbouring  street. 
He  dealt  with  politics  also.  Monarchy  was 
right,  but  it  ought  to  be  elective;  for  so,  he 
said,  the  Vedas  clearly  assert.1 

1  Some  friends  in  India — whose  judgment  I  can  fully 
trust — mention  that  the  Arya-Samaj  is  very  strongly 
"national,"  i.e.  anti-foreign  in  feeling.  This  mixture  of 
politics  with  religion  is  a  serious  evil. 


io8  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

These  were  new  and  startling  views,  and 
they  drew  no  little  attention.  But  at  a  great 
convocation  of  learned  Brahmans  at  Calcutta 
Dayananda's  views — in  so  far  as  they  differed 
from  the  ordinary  belief — were  declared  to  be 
unsound.  Dayananda  however  went  on  travel- 
ling, lecturing,  publishing,  till  he  died  in 
October  1883,  at  the  age  of  fifty-nine.  His 
system  of  thought,  however,  which  is  called 
Arya  Samaj,  endures  ;  and  his  followers  are  said 
in  the  Government  census  to  be  in  number 
92,419.  The  distinctive  teachings  of  the  Arya 
Samaj,  as  the  Society  is  called,  are  entirely 
baseless;  yet  it  is  far  more  flourishing  than 
the  Brahmo  Samaj.  Finally  let  us  note  that  the 
Arya  Samaj  is  decidedly  Anti-Christian  in  its 
whole  character  and  action.  This  is  not  the 
case  with  the  Brahmo  Samaj,  and  this  difference 
between  the  two  Samaj es  ought  never  to  be 
overlooked. 

In  Western  India  the  movement  towards 
religious  reform  has  never  attained  the  magni- 
tude it  possesses  in  Bengal. 

As  far  back  as  1840  a  Society  was  formed 
for  religious  inquiry  called  the  Paramhansa 
Mandali.  The  members  were  opposed  to 
idolatry  and  caste,  and  favoured  the  re- 


HINDUISM  109 

marriage  of  widows.  The  Society  lasted  till 
1860,  always  holding  its  meetings  in  secret. 

In  1864  Keshub  Chunder  Sen  visited 
Bombay,  and  his  stirring  eloquence  was  not 
without  effect.  A  Society  of  thirty-one 
members  was  formed,  called  the  Prarthana 
Sabha,  a  Prayer  Society,  and  it  has  slowly 
grown  till  its  membership  in  Poona  is  above 
one  hundred.  Branch  Societies  also  exist  in 
five  or  six  other  places. 

The  Maratha  people  are  certainly  an 
energetic,  manly  race,  but  they  have  been  timid 
in  the  matter  of  religious  reform.  I  do  not 
pretend  accurately  to  state  the  reason  of  this ; 
but  the  lethargy  appears  to  be  largely  due 
to  the  influence  of  several  men,  all  of  them 
Brahmans.  Learned  men  they  are,  and  of 
high  character ;  but,  as  it  has  seemed  to  many, 
very  irresolute.  At  all  events,  when  they 
moved  at  all,  it  was,  as  one  of  them  expressly 
said,  "  along  the  line  of  least  resistance."  A 
true  reformer  must  surely  set  his  face  like  a 
flint  against  opposition;  he  must  have  much 
of  the  martyr-spirit  in  him;  but  in  several 
matters  of  practical  reform  these  men  did 
not  carry  out  even  the  principles  which  they 
professed,  and  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that 


1 10  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

they  would  act  heroically  in  advancing  religious 
change.  I  do  not  think  that  the  Brahmo 
Samaj  of  Bengal  has  ever  expressed  any 
penetrating  sense  of  the  evil  of  sin,  and  the 
necessity  of  a  great  redemption ;  but  it  has 
gone  very  far  in  its  admiration  of  Christ  as  a 
great  and  holy  teacher,  and  the  noblest  of 
martyrs.  All  this  leaves  doubtless  a  great  gulf 
between  the  Samaj  and  the  Church  of  Christ. 
But  one  earnestly  wishes  that  Western  India 
could  unite  were  it  only  in  that  glowing 
admiration  of  Christ's  character  which  was 
expressed  so  often  by  the  eloquent  lips  of 
Chunder  Sen. 

It  is  singular  that,  as  I  write  these  words, 
I  have  come  in  contact  with  one  of  the  latest 
utterances  of  the  Brahmo  Samaj  of  Bengal.  It 
runs  as  follows  : — 

"We  Brahmos  of  the  New  Dispensation 
believe  that  there  can  be  no  regeneration  with- 
out Christ,  who  is  l  the  door '  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven;  and  that,  if  any  man  comes  not 
through  that  door,  he  has  no  place  in  it." 

Excellent,  so  far.  When  will  our  friends 
in  Western  India  go  as  far?  We  learn  that 
the  learned  man  who,  without  disrespect  to 
others,  may  be  called  the  leader  of  the  Samaj 


HINDUISM  1 1 1 

in  West  India,  has  recommended,  as  the  basis 
of  its  religion,  "the  best  portions  of  the 
Upanishads  and  the  Bhagavad  Gita,  and  the 
teaching  of  the  mediaeval  Hindu  saints  supple- 
mented by  certain  things  from  Buddhism  and 
from  the  Bible  ? " 

We  simply  ask :  If  this  advice  is  followed, 
how  many  thousand  years  must  elapse  before 
India  can  stand  on  a  footing  of  equality  with 
the  enlightened  nations  of  the  West  ? 


LECTURE  THIRD 

ZOROASTRIANISM 

ZOROASTRIANISM  is  the  religion  of  the  ancient 
Persians  and  the  modern  Parsis. 

I  hardly  require  to  remind  you  of  the  high 
position  held  in  ancient  days  by  Persia.  King 
Ahasuerus,  as  we  are  told  in  the  book  of 
Esther,  reigned  "  from  India  even  unto 
Ethiopia,  over  a  hundred  and  seven  and  twenty 
provinces."  We  all  remember  the  great  con- 
flict of  Greece  with  Persia,  which  made  Mara- 
thon and  Thermopylae  imperishable  names,  and 
the  counter-invasion  of  Alexander  of  Macedon, 
which  destroyed  the  first  Persian  empire.  No 
less  memorable  is  the  close  connection  of  the 
Persians  and  the  Jews.  The  prophet  Isaiah 
heralded  in  impassioned  strains  the  advent  of 
the  great  conqueror  Cyrus,  when  he  came  to 
free  the  Hebrews  from  the  Babylonian  yoke, 
and  to  restore  them  to  their  own  loved 
Palestine. 


ZORO ASTRI  ANISiM  1 1 3 

A  very  remarkable  revival  of  the  Persian 
empire  took  place  about  500  years  after  it 
had  been  overthrown  by  the  Macedonians. 
This  second  empire  reached  from  the  Euphrates 
to  the  Indus,  and  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to 
the  Indian  Ocean.  It  lasted  about  400 
years,  and  warred,  sometimes  successfully, 
against  the  Eastern  empire.  Then,  in  the 
year  632,  the  irresistible  Arabs  rushed  in 
with  their  war-cry  of  "  God  and  the  Prophet " ; 
and  "  the  white  palace  of  Chosroes  "  and  the 
sumless  wealth  of  Persia  lay  at  the  mercy  of 
the  desert-robbers.  Zoroastrianism  never  re- 
covered that  terrible  shock.  The  Arabs  were 
earnest  proselytisers  ;  and  they  were  quite  pre- 
pared, when  they  deemed  it  fitting,  to  become 
persecutors.  Zoroastrianism  still  exists  in 
Persia ;  but  it  barely  exists,  and  seems  slowly 
dying  out. 

A  body  of  Persians  refused  to  yield  to  the 
Arab  conquerors  and  retreated  eastward.  About 
100  years  afterwards  they  abandoned  Persia 
and  found  their  way  by  sea  to  Ormuz,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Even  there  the 
Arab  yoke  was  heavy  ;  and  the  Persians  soon 
sailed  to  Western  India,  which  they  reached 
in  717,  landing  about  sixty  miles  north  of 

H 


ii4  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Bombay.  The  Hindu  ruler  of  the  district  was 
compassionate  to  the  exiles.  He  asked  for 
some  account  of  their  religion,  and  in  reply 
they  said : — 

"  O  Prince  of  excellent  fortune  ! 
We  are  the  poor  descendants  of  Jemshid ; 
We  reverence  fire  and  water, 
Also  the  cow,  the  sun  and  the  moon. 
Whatever  God  has  created  in  the  world 
We  bow  to  it.   .  .  ." 

and  so  on. 

Their  statement  is  almost  exclusively  a  list 
of  ritual  observances,  and  seems  to  prove  the 
refugees  to  have  been  depressed  and  ignorant^ 
But  they  had  brought  with  them  "  the  tools 
and  skill  of  Khorasan." 

They  worked  and  prospered.  Surat  was 
then  a  very  important  commercial  city,  and 
soon  attracted  a  large  number  of  Parsis ;  but 
for  many  years  past  Bombay  has  been  their 
chief  abode.  They  are  generally  merchants, 
enterprising,  and  as  a  rule  prosperous.  They 
have  been  called  the  "  Anglo-Saxons  of  the 
East."  Not  a  few  of  their  leading  men  have 
been  distinguished  for  philanthropy.  Consider- 
ing the  smallness  of  the  community,  the  in- 
fluence it  exerts  is  remarkable.  The  late 


ZORO ASTRI ANISM  1 1 5 

census  makes  them  out  to  be,  in  all  India, 
89,904  in  number. 

But  enough  about  their  general  history. 
The  religion  can  be  traced  back,  in  its  leading 
features,  to  a  very  early  time — at  least  to  the 
days  of  Darius  Hystaspis  and  some  of  them 
still  farther  back. 

Xerxes,  in  his  invasion  of  Greece,  burnt  the 
temples  of  Athens;  but,  on  the  whole,  the 
rulers  of  the  first  Persian  empire  were  by  no 
means  so  intolerant  as  those  of  the  second. 
The  second  commenced  in  the  year  226  A.D., 
under  Ardashir  Babegan  (called  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  Artaxerxes).  Unlike  Alexander 
of  Macedon,  who  was  something  of  a  statesman 
as  well  as  a  warrior,  and  who  wished  to  bring 
East  and  West  into  harmony,  Ardashir  strove 
to  fan  their  immemorial  discordance  into  hatred. 
He  sought  to  blend  his  vast  dominions  into  one 
homogeneous  sovereignty.  He  would  have 
none  of  what  was  called  "  the  poison  of 
Aristotle."  He  desired  to  revive  the  religion 
of  Zoroaster,  whose  name  was  still  widely 
revered.  The  account  of  the  way  in  which, 
according  to  the  Parsis,  he  tried  to  do  so,  is 
beyond  measure  wild.  He  summoned  the 
priests  of  the  ancient  faith  from  all  parts  of 


n6  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

his  dominions.  The  call  was  responded  to  by 
80,000  men.  Successive  deductions  brought 
the  number  down  to  seven,  who  were  believed 
to  surpass  all  the  rest  in  wisdom  and  piety. 
The  chief  of  these  was  Ardai  Viraf.  He 
bathed,  clothed  himself  in  new  garments, 
received  from  his  companions  three  cups  of 
soporific  wine,  and  was  then  covered  over 
with  a  clean  linen  cloth.  He  slept  for  seven 
days.  During  this  time  his  soul  quitted  his 
body,  and  was  conveyed  into  the  immediate 
presence  of  the  Deity.  When  he  awoke  he 
called  for  a  scribe  who  might  commit  to  writing 
the  marvels  he  had  seen  and  heard.  He  then 
dictated  the  articles  of  the  Zoroastrian  faith, 
and  these  the  king  and  nobles  readily  accepted. 
So  runs  the  legend,  which  was  probably  believed 
by  only  a  portion  of  the  ancient  Parsis  them- 
selves, and  which  now  awakens  generally  a 
smile  among  their  descendants. 

It  is  said  that  in  Alexander's  time  two 
copies  of  the  sacred  books  existed,  of  which 
one  was  burnt  and  the  other  carried  off  by  the 
Greeks  and  lost.  All  we  know  is  that  the 
Parthians,  who  had  wrested  Persia  from  the 
Greeks,  were  fond  of  Grecian  learning,  and 
tolerated  rather  than  patronised  the  Zoroastrian 


ZORO ASTRI ANISM  1 1 7 

faith.     This  apparently  soon  sank  into  a  rude 
dualism,  accompanied  by  the  worship  of  fire. 

But  under  Ardashir  and  his  successors  from 
226  A.D.  more  than  its  ancient  splendour  was 
restored.  Church  and  State  were  now  united  by 
the  closest  bonds,  and  the  State  became  strongly 
intolerant.  Christianity  had  been  introduced 
into  Persia.  "  Parthians  and  Medes  and 
Elamites "  were  present  on  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost, and  heard  the  preaching  of  St  Peter,  the 
effect  of  which  was  so  remarkable.  The 
Zoroastrian  rulers  resisted  the  Gospel  from  the 
first ;  and  when  Constantine  became  a  Christian, 
the  opposition  to  it  became  only  fiercer.  Certain 
it  is  that  the  Persian  martyrology  is  rich  in 
examples  of  unshaken  fidelity  to  Christ  under 
the  severest  persecutions.  King  Shapur  II., 
from  about  the  year  339,  was  a  more  relentless 
persecutor  even  than  Decius  or  Diocletian. 
Chosroes  II.  (Khosru  Parviz)  in  590  took  a 
solemn  oath  that  there  should  be  no  peace 
between  Persia  and  Constantinople  until  the 
Christians  abandoned  the  religion  of  the 
Crucified,  and  embraced  the  religion  of  the 
Sun.  He  seized  on  Rhodes  and  kept  a 
besieging  army  ten  years  before  Constantinople. 
The  Emperor  Heraclius  then  awoke  to  his 


1 1 8   THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

extreme  danger.  In  six  successive  invasions 
of  Persia  he  greatly  exhausted  its  resources; 
so  that,  when  the  Arabs  rushed  in,  they  carried 
all  resistlessly  before  them.  This  last  event 
occurred  in  A.D.  641.  The  Zoroastrians  had 
then  to  implore  for  themselves  that  toleration 
which  they  had  denied  to  others. 

If  we  except  its  warlike  ardour,  there 
is  little  in  the  history  of  the  second 
Persian  empire  which  calls  for  notice.  The 
Emperor  Valerian  was  taken  captive,  and 
Julian  was  slain  in  battle.  The  people  were 
ignorant  and  but  partially  civilised.  The 
priests  were  narrow-minded  and  superstitious ; 
and  of  all  the  kings  only  one  has  acquired 
a  high  name  in  history,  viz.,  Naushirvan  the 
Just. 

There  are  not  a  few  questions  connected 
with  the  history  of  Zoroastrianism  which  are 
still  matters  of  keen  controversy.  We  shall 
not  enter  into  these,  but  shall  in  a  great  degree 
confine  our  attention  to  points  in  which  there 
exists  a  large  measure  of  agreement  among 
Oriental  scholars.  Happily,  these  are  not  few 
in  number ;  nor  are  they  by  any  means  devoid 
of  interest.  In  these  days,  when  so  much 
attention  is  paid  to  the  comparative  study  of 


ZOROASTRIANISM  1 1 9 

religions,  the  Avesta  faith  ought  by  no  means 
to  be  overlooked.  The  system  possesses  some 
striking  peculiarities.  Further,  it  has  had  a 
very  remarkable  history.  Most  important 
problems  are  involved  in  its  relations  to 
Hinduism,  Judaism,  the  Babylonian  religion, 
the  Gnostic  heresies,  and  the  great  system  of 
Manicheeism ;  and  in  the  Mithraic  mysteries, 
which  were  mainly  of  Persian  origin,  its  influ- 
ence spread  extensively  over  the  Roman  Empire 
and  even  as  far  west  as  Britain. 

Much  had  been  written  regarding  Zoroaster 
and  his  religion,  and  many  had  been  the 
speculations  regarding  his  doctrines ;  but  no 
satisfactory  conclusions  could  be  reached  so 
long  as  the  Avesta  remained  unknown.  Even 
before  the  Christian  era  Zoroaster  had  become 
a  mythical  personage,  and  forged  oracles  were 
ascribed  to  him  which  only  increased  the  per- 
plexity. The  laborious  researches  of  scholars 
like  Dr  Thomas  Hyde  are  deserving  of  high 
respect ;  but  such  men  had  to  reason  from 
data  always  insufficient  and  often  untrustworthy. 
A  new  era  in  the  study  of  Zoroastrianism 
began  with  the  labours  of  Anquetil  du  Perron. 
The  story  of  the  travels  and  researches  of  this 
enthusiastic  explorer  readsalmost  likea  romance. 


120  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

He  went  to  India  in  quest  of  the  venerable 
book  ascribed  to  Zoroaster;  found  it  among 
the  Parsi  priests  of  Surat ;  and,  after  years  of 
toilsome  investigation  into  its  doctrines,  returned 
in  triumph  with  his  prize  to  Europe.  He 
published  a  French  translation  of  it,  with 
accompanying  dissertations,  in  1771.  The 
work  at  once  excited  the  greatest  interest. 
This,  after  some  time,  began  to  diminish, 
mainly  in  consequence  of  the  faulty  character 
of  the  translation,  which  was  frequently  very 
obscure,  and  not  infrequently  incorrect.  Dur- 
ing the  last  fifty  years,  however,  the  study  of 
the  Avesta  has  been  prosecuted  by  a  succession 
of  able  men  with  unflagging  zeal,  and  with  no 
inconsiderable  success. 

We  may  mention,  without  disparagement  of 
others,  the  following  writers  as  of  high 
authority :  Westergaard,  Spiegel,  Haug,  Canon 
de  Harlez,  Geldner,  Jasti,  Dr  E.  W.  West, 
and  Professor  William  Jackson. 

We  can  trace  the  Avesta  as  we  find  it  up  to 
the  time  of  the  Sasanian  dynasty  in  Persia.  The 
Persian  Empire  was  restored  in  the  year  226 
after  Christ  by  Ardashir  Babegan,  the  first  of 
the  Sasanian  line.  He  was  a  man  of  un- 
common force  of  character ;  bold  and  success- 


ZORO  ASTRI ANISM  1 2 1 

ful  as  a  warrior,  and  skilful  in  administration. 
In  building  up  his  kingdom  he  called  religion 
to  his  aid.  He  earnestly  sought  to  collect  the 
writings  that  inculcated  the  ancient  faith  of 
Zoroaster;  and  several  of  his  successors  per- 
severed in  the  attempt.  The  canon  of  the 
Avesta  was  fixed  under  Shapur  II.,  about  the 
year  350;  revision  and  condensation  were 
effected  in  the  reign  of  Khosru  Parviz,  between 
531  and  579.  The  Avesta,  as  we  possess  it, 
may  thus  be  safely  traced  back  at  least  to  the 
sixth  century  after  Christ.  We  must  allow 
for  errors  of  transcription  in  the  case  of  what 
had  long  been  a  dead  language.  Uncouth  and 
unintelligible  phrases  abound  in  the  work ;  the 
text  is  often  manifestly  incorrect,  and  critics 
are  sorely  tempted  to  try  the  undesirable 
expedient  of  conjectural  emendation.  Still,  on 
the  whole,  here  stands  the  Avesta,  nearly  as  it 
must  have  stood  some  thirteen,  or  even  fifteen, 
centuries  ago.  Further :  although  collected  in 
the  day  of  the  Sasanian  kings,  we  have  no 
reason  to  believe  that  it  was  then  composed. 
An  extensive  literature  existed  in  Persia  before 
the  Macedonian  conquest.  The  tradition  of 
the  Parsis  is  that  Alexander — "the  accursed 
wretch  Sikandar,"  as  they  call  him — burnt  all 


122  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

their  books,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
fragments.  The  tradition  cannot  count  for 
much ;  for  the  great  conqueror  was  generally 
tolerant  in  matters  of  religion,  and  pursued  as 
far  as  possible  a  policy  of  conciliation.  The 
disappearance  of  the  ancient  books  is  rather  to 
be  regarded  as  the  result  of  the  centuries  of 
confusion  that  succeeded  the  Macedonian  con- 
quest over  the  countries  in  which  the  Zoro- 
astrian  faith  generally  prevailed.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  by  far  the 
greatest  part  of  the  Avesta  was  composed  at 
various  dates  ranging  from  about  the  seventh 
to  the  fourth  century  before  Christ.  Portions 
may  be  still  more  recent;  and  it  is  possible, 
even  probable,  that  some  additions  were  made 
as  late  as  the  sixth  century  after  Christ.  The 
work,  as  it  stands,  is  not  only  fragmentary  but 
chaotic,  wonderfully  little  skill  having  been 
exhibited  in  the  arrangement  of  its  component 
parts. 

About  Zoroaster  himself  we  must  say  a  few 
words.  Some  able  men  doubt  his  very  exist- 
ence, and  find  in  his  history  only  a  mythical 
description  of  elemental  war — an  atmospheric 
storm.  On  the  whole,  we  think  that  he  actually 
existed;  and  that  he  was  possibly  a  Bactrian, 


ZOROASTRIANISM  1 23 

but  probably  a  Mede.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  while  the  Medes  were  under 
Assyrian  dominion,  their  religion  had  to  some 
extent  become  mixed  with  that  of  the  con- 
querors ;  but  that,  when  the  foreign  yoke  was 
thrown  off,  an  earnest  attempt  was  made  to 
revive  the  ancient  Aryan  faith.  With  this 
reformation  we  may  provisionally  connect  the 
name  of  Zoroaster.  Thus,  in  round  numbers, 
we  can  with  some  probability  assign  his  era  to 
the  commencement  of  the  seventh  century  B.C. 
On  these  questions,  however,  we  can  as  yet 
attain  to  no  more  than  plausible  conjecture, 
and  all  dogmatism  is  out  of  place.  Even  the 
name  of  the  great  teacher — in  Zend,  Zara- 
thushtra,  has  received  no  satisfactory  explana- 
tion. We  may  believe — still,  it  is  only  a 
plausible  conjecture — that  the  Avesta  religion 
arose  to  the  south-east  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
among  a  race  still  semi-nomadic,  but  inclin- 
ing more  and  more  to  pastoral  and  agricultural 
life.  It  seems  to  have  powerfully  affected 
Bactria  and  Media  before  it  entered  Persia. 
In  the  last-named  country  the  precepts  of  the 
Avesta  were  but  partially  submitted  to  during 
the  earlier  reigns,  from  Cyrus  downwards  ;  but 
the  power  of  the  Magi — the  priests — with  a 


124  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

short  interruption  after  the  death  of  the 
Pseudo-Smerdis,  appears  to  have  gone  on 
steadily  increasing,  until  the  Macedonian 
conquest  shattered  it  to  pieces.  The  suc- 
cessors of  Alexander  reigned  eighty  years 
over  Persia.  Under  the  Parthian  power 
which  succeeded,  the  Magi  slowly  recovered  a 
certain  measure  of  authority;  and  Valkhash 
(Volegeses),  one  of  the  later  kings,  seems  to 
have  begun  the  work  of  collecting  the 
scattered  fragments  of  the  sacred  books.  The 
Parthian  dominion  was  overthrown  by  Ardashir 
Babegan,  who  has  been  mentioned  above ; 
and,  under  him  and  his  successors,  Zoroas- 
trianism  obtained  a  far  more  influential  position 
than  it  had  ever  previously  held.  This  it 
retained  until  Persia  was  conquered  by  the 
Arabs,  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century 
after  Christ. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  Ahura  Mazda, 
the  chief  divinity  in  the  Avesta,  was  originally 
the  same  as  the  Varuna  Asura  of  the  Veda. 
(Ahura  is  simply  the  Zend  form  of  Asura, 
which  means  Lord.)  A  very  lofty  char- 
acter is  ascribed  to  this  deity;  if  the  Veda 
ever  approaches  the  conception  of  holiness,  it 
is  in  connection  with  him  it  does  so.  The 


ZOROASTRIANISM  125 

counterparts  of  Varuna,  the  heaven-god,  are 
found  in  Zeus,  Ju-piter,  and  Ahura  Mazda ; 
and  it  may  be  held  as  demonstrated  that  the 
conception  of  a  supreme  divinity,  wise,  power- 
ful, and  good,  was  common  to  the  four  great 
divisions  of  the  Aryan  race, — the  Greeks, 
Romans,  Hindus,  and  Iranians.  It  must  have 
belonged  to  them  before  they  separated  from 
each  other.  Yet,  although  supreme,  this 
divinity  was  not  sole ;  he  was,  in  the  phrase 
which  meets  us  so  frequently  from  the  time  of 
Homer  downwards,  uthe  father  of  gods  and 
men  "  ;  but  he  received  no  exclusive  homage. 

After  the  other  branches  of  the  Aryan 
family  had  migrated  to  the  west,  the  Iranians 
and  Hindus  evidently  remained  for  some  time 
together ;  and  hence  many  elements  are  com- 
mon to  the  two  systems  of  religion.  But 
ere  long  the  Indo-Iranian  stream  divided  into 
two  parts,  which  were  never  to  re-unite. 
Each  of  the  two  systems  of  faith  then  received 
its  own  special  development. 

In  India,  Varuna  was  gradually  divested  of 
his  serene  majesty.  Even  in  Vedic  times 
Indra,  the  tumultuous  god  of  the  lower  sky, 
who  had  none  of  his  lofty  attributes,  was 
exalted  into  the  place  of  Varuna;  and  other 


126  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

gods  were  gradually  multiplied.  But  in  Iran 
(Persia)  the  authority  of  Ahura  Mazda  (i.e. 
the  wise  Lord)  became  more  fully  recognised 
than  before.  His  moral  attributes  also  were 
never  obscured.  Still,  Ahura  Mazda  falls 
very  far  below  the  divinity  who  is  revealed  in 
the  Jewish  Scriptures.  He  is  not  a  purely 
spiritual  being.  He  is  not  omnipresent  or 
omnipotent. 

Closely  connected  with  Ahura  is  a  hierarchy 
of  celestial  beings,  the  Amesha-spentas.  They 
are  very  generally  adored  along  with  Ahura. 
Thus  :  "  We  sacrifice  to  Ahura  Mazda,  bright 
and  glorious;  we  sacrifice  to  the  Amesha- 
spentas,  all-ruling,  all-beneficent."  The  func- 
tion of  these  "  holy  immortals "  is  to  inspect 
and  aid  the  whole  of  the  good  creation.  Their 
designations  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  Vohumano  (literally,  good  mind').      The 
name    originally    denotes    submission    to    the 
revealed  law.     He  became  the  genius  of  truth, 
and  also  of  flocks. 

2.  Asha  vasistha  (the  best  rectitude)  denotes 
conformity  to  divine  order ;  truth  and  holiness. 
He  presides  over  fire.     He  also  cures  disease. 

3.  Khshathra  vairya    (supreme  sovereignty). 
;- 


ZOROASTRIANISM  1 27 

He  represents  royal  dominion.     He  also  pre- 
sides over  metals. 

4.  Spenta  Armaiti  (holy  wisdom}.     She  be- 
came the  genius  of  the  Earth. 

5,  6.  Haurvatat  and  Ameretat  are  generally 
mentioned    together.      Their    names    signify 
health    and    immortality.      They   denote    the 
fulness  of  blessing. 

In  the  Gathas,  the  Amesha-spentas  seem 
abstract  ideas,  or  qualities,  rather  than  personal 
beings.  Their  names  sound  like  attributes  of 
Ahura  Mazda ;  and  many  passages  appear  to 
require  them  to  be  so  understood. 

Yazatas.  This  term  means  worthy  of  worship^ 
and  is  occasionally  used  in  that  comprehensive 
sense.  .More  frequently,  however,  it  denotes 
a  very  large  class  of  beings  who  are  inferior 
in  point  of  dignity  to  the  Amesha-spentas. 

Of  the  first  kind  are  genii  presiding  over 
natural  objects,  especially  those  connected  with 
the  elements — fire  and  light,  air,  earth,  and 
water. 

Equal  importance  is  attached  to  the  genii 
connected  with  Light.  A  very  high  place 
among  these  is  assigned  to  Mithra.  He  was 
originally  the  god  of  the  luminous  heaven. 

It  was  towards  the  Christian  era  that  the 


128  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

worship  of  Mithra,  mixed  apparently  with 
cruel  rites  borrowed  from  Babylon,  spread  far 
and  wide  in  the  west. 

Of  the  genii  of  the  waters  the  most  cele- 
brated is  Ardvi  sura  Anahit,  i.e.  the  high, 
powerful,  undefiled.  She  descends  from  the 
region  of  the  stars. 

Of  the  productions  of  the  vegetable  world 
the  most  celebrated  was  Homa,  or  Haomo. 
The  Homa  is  a  plant  with  thick  stalks  and 
yellow  flowers,  growing  chiefly  on  the  moun- 
tains of  Ghilan  in  northern  Persia.  The 
Avesta  speaks  of  it  in  the  most  exalted  terms. 
It  flourishes  in  resplendent  glory  on  "the 
highest  height "  of  the  heavenly  mountain 
Hara  Berezaiti ;  its  juice  cures  all  ills  of  mind 
and  body.  The  juice  is  extracted  by  pounding 
the  plant  with  a  pestle  in  a  mortar.  It  is  the 
enlivening,  the  beautiful,  the  lordly,  the 
golden-eyed,  the  victorious,  and  the  giver  of 
victory.  It  is  the  most  precious  part  of  the 
offering. 

The  spirits  of  the  air  are  not  of  much 
importance.  The  most  important  is  Vayu — 
the  wind  ;  who  is  said  to  belong  in  part  to 
the  good,  and  in  part  to  the  bad,  creation. 

Of  the   spirits  of  the  earth  the  most  im- 


ZOROASTRIANISM  129 

portant  is  Spenta  Armaiti,  who  is  also  one  of 
the  Amesha-spentas. 

The  beings  hitherto  mentioned,  with  the 
exception  of  Anahit,  were  originally  common 
to  the  Indo-Iranian  race.  There  are  other 
divinities  who  are  of  purely  Iranian  origin,  and 
unknown  in  India.  The  most  important  of 
these  are  the  following  : — 

Sraosha.  This  name  is  derived  from  a  verb 
signifying  to  hear.  Sraosha  is  the  genius  of 
obedience  to  the  law. 

The  Law  (Daena)  and  the  holy  formulae  or 
spells  are  also  worshipped  as  divine.  So  are 
the  sacred  books,  especially  the  Gathas. 
Sacrifice  is  offered  to  them,  and  they  are 
frequently  invoked  for  aid. 

A  very  remarkable  class  of  divinities  is  that 
of  the  Fravashis.  There  is  considerable 
obscurity — not  to  say  contradiction — in  the 
descriptions  of  them.  Originally  they  pro- 
bably were  the  souls  of  the  dead ;  but,  in 
process  of  time,  all  living  beings — animals, 
as  well  as  men — sky,  waters,  earth,  fire,  and 
plants,  were  believed  to  have  each  a  Fravashi. 
Beings  yet  unborn  possess  them. 

Space  is  also  worshipped.     So  is  Time. 

It  seems  needless  to  go  into  greater  detail, 


130  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

There  is  nothing  in  the  whole  of  the  good 
creation  that  is  not  held  to  be  deserving  of 
worship.  Prayers  are  addressed  to  human 
souls,  the  souls  of  animals,  vegetables,  springs 
of  water,  rivers,  mountains,  the  earth,  the 
wind,  the  sky,  the  stars,  etc.,  etc. 

We  proceed  now  to  speak  of  evil  beings. 
The  Avesta,  as  Professor  Darmesteter  rather 
sarcastically  remarks,  is  "  very  rich  in  demons." 
Daevas,  drujas,  yatus,  pairikas,  dvarants, 
dregvants,  and  so  on ;  we  have  them  of  varied 
classes,  and  in  numbers  without  number. 

The  chief  of  these — and  the  creator  of  all 
of  them — is  Angro  mainyus  or  Ahriman.  His 
name  in  Zend  means  hurtful  spirit.  He  is  from 
all  eternity ;  he  is  wholly  evil ;  his  original 
dwelling  was  in  primeval,  uncreated  darkness, 
which  existed  in  boundless  space,  far  apart 
from  the  primeval,  uncreated  light.  Angro 
mainyus  was  at  first  ignorant  of  the  produc- 
tions, and  apparently  of  the  existence  of  the 
good  spirit.  But  when  he  became  aware  of 
these,  he  "broke  into  the  fair  creation,"  deter- 
mined to  counterwork,  and  if  possible,  destroy 
it.  For  every  pure  being  created  by  the  good 
spirit,  Angro  mainyus  created  a  corresponding 


ZORO  ASTRI ANISM  1 3 1 

evil  being ;  in  place  of  health,  he  made  disease ; 
and  for  life,  death.  The  good  spirit  (we  have 
seen)  is  surrounded  by  six  immortal  holy  ones. 
Angro  mainyus  created  six  arch-demons,  the 
grisly  council  of  hell,  whose  very  names  seem 
mockeries  of  those  of  the  pure  hierarchy  of 
heaven.  The  entire  struggle  between  good 
and  evil — light  and  darkness — lasts  for  twelve 
thousand  years ;  and  we  are  now  in  the  thick 
of  the  fight. 

Zoroaster  was  the  only  human  being  that 
could  daunt  Angro  mainyus.  He  smote  the 
fiend  with  the  holy  spells,  and  especially  with 
the  one  called  Ahuna  vairya  (or  Honover), 
which  was  as  strong  a  weapon  as  a  stone  of 
the  size  of  a  house.  Still,  however,  the  battle 
rages.  Three  sons  of  Zoroaster  will  yet  be 
miraculously  born,  who  will  carry  on  his  work, 
in  which  the  last  of  them — Soshyant,  or 
Sosiosh — will  be  completely  victorious.  Angro 
mainyus  will  be  overthrown;  he  will  be  cast 
into  hell,  and  (as  is  generally  held)  destroyed. 
Then  comes  the  frashokereti,  the  perpetuation 
of  life.  The  fair  creation  that  had  been  slain 
by  the  fiend  revives ;  the  good  live  in  a  reno- 
vated world,  and  everlasting  joy  prevails. 

Garotmana  is  often  mentioned  as  the  dwell- 


1 32  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

ing-place  of  Ahura  Mazda.  The  name  means 
"  the  house  of  song."  Ahura  there  sits  on  a 
throne  of  gold,  surrounded  by  the  Amesha 
spentas  and  Yazatas.  Paradise  is  often  identi- 
fied with  it.  Hell  is  full  of  darkness  and 
horror.  It  is  situated  in  the  north,  under  the 
earth;  its  mouth  is  beside  the  mountain 
Arezura. 

The  sacred  fire  is  kept  in  a  special  building 
called  Atesh  Bahram;  in  the  innermost  and 
most  sacred  division  of  the  building.  This  is 
separated  from  the  rest  by  a  wall;  but  the 
door  remains  open. 

Prayers  are  chanted  memoriter  by  the 
priest  (Mobed),  in  front  of  the  fire.  Every 
portion  of  the  day  has  its  allotted  prayer. 
While  these  are  offered  within  the  inner 
apartment,  the  people  without  read  or  repeat 
prayers,  facing  the  fire.  Sometimes  the  wor- 
shipper may  add  an  extempore  supplication  of 
his  own  in  the  vernacular.  Women  occasionally 
attend. 

Prayers  for  the  dead  are  recited  daily  in 
the  Atesh  Bahram.  Richer  people  generally 
have  the  service  performed  in  their  own  houses; 
but  poor  people  come  to  the  fire-temple. 


ZOROASTR1ANISM  1 33 

So  much  for  public  worship.  But  even  the 
domestic  fire  is  always  sacred,  and  must  be 
treated  as  such.  It,  too,  must  never  be 
extinguished. 

We  may  next  speak  of  offerings.  When 
asked  how  the  demon  could  be  repelled  by 
him,  Zoroaster  said:  "The  sacred  mortar,  the 
sacred  cup,  the  Homa,  and  the  words  taught 
by  Mazda;  these  are  my  weapons,  my  best 
weapons." 

The  great  Iranian  heroes  of  the  ancient 
times  offered  up  animal  sacrifices.  Animal 
sacrifices  are  not  unknown  in  the  Vendidad. 
For  a  certain  very  grave  offence  the  guilty 
person  must  "  slay  a  thousand  head  of  small 
cattle,  and  offer  the  entrails  to  the  fire."  In 
other  cases  also  animal  offerings  were  required, 
until  in  comparatively  recent  times ;  but  all 
such  observances  seem  now  to  have  entirely 
ceased. 

In  the  present  day,  flesh  (myazda)  is  not 
offered.  The  priest  takes  the  cup  containing 
the  Homa  in  his  right  hand,  raises  it  in  his 
right  hand  before  the  sacred  fire,  and  drinks  a 
small  quantity.  The  rest  is  poured  into 
a  well. 

The  Homa  offering  is  made  in  private  houses 


i34  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

as  well  as  in  fire-temples ;  and  the  ceremony 
should  be  performed  twice  a  day. 

Offerings  are  still  made  to  the  sea,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  flowers  and  fruits,  such  as  cocoa 
nuts. 

Ceremonial  purity  is  with  the  Pars!  a  matter 
of  supreme  importance.  Defilement  is  easily 
incurred,  and  hence  the  means  of  purification 
are  carefully  prescribed  in  the  Avesta.  The 
glory  of  the  Zoroastrian  law  is  said  to  consist 
in  its  so  fully  and  clearly  declaring  the 
ceremonies  needful  for  cleansing  the  defiled. 

The  distinction  between  ceremonial  and 
moral  defilement  is  far  from  clear  in  the 
Avesta. 

The  great  material  agents  of  purification  are 
water  and  gomez  or  nirang  (urina  bovis). 

Everything  that  issues  from  the  human  body 
is  regarded  as  dead,  and  as  belonging  to  the 
demons.  Even  the  hair  and  nails  when  cut 
off  are  the  same:  and  elaborate  prescriptions 
are  given  as  to  their  disposal. 

The  great  source  of  defilement  is  contact 
with  a  dead  body. 

The  new-born  child  must  be  washed  with 
water,  not  generally  now  with  nirang.  Before 
this,  it  is  impure.  Before  the  age  of  fifteen, 


ZOROASTRIANISM  135 

and  generally  between  nine  and  eleven,  initia- 
tion into  the  Zoroastrian  faith  takes  place  by 
means  of  prayers,  purifications,  and  the  putting 
on  of  the  kusti  (a  string  made  of  seventy-two 
woollen  threads  twisted  together),  and  the 
sadarah  or  sacred  shirt,  which  is  of  muslin 
with  short  sleeves. 

When  anyone  dies,  men  first  wash  the 
body,  dress  it  in  white  garments,  and  lay  it  on 
a  stone  slab  in  the  front  room.  The  priest 
comes  and  reads  prayers.  The  women  are  now 
in  the  same  room  with  the  body,  the  men 
outside.  During  the  last  prayer  a  white  dog, 
kept  usually  in  the  fire-temple,  is  brought  near 
the  corpse,  and  induced,  if  possible,  to  look  at 
it.  Two,  now  generally  four,  men  lay  the 
body  on  an  iron  bier.  The  dog  is  commonly 
brought  in  twice ;  and  the  whole  ceremony 
may  occupy  forty  minutes.  Then  the  body  is 
borne  off  by  the  four  men — a  fifth  man  pre- 
ceding to  clear  the  way,  so  that  not  even 
the  shadow  of  an  unbeliever  may  fall  on  the 
corpse.  The  priests  walk  two  and  two, 
generally  holding  a  handkerchief  between  them. 
Ceremonies  are  performed  close  to  the  dakhma, 
or  "  tower  of  silence,"  as  it  is  usually  called 
in  English.  This  is  a  circular  pit  very  deep, 


i36  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

round  which  is  a  stone  pavement  about  seven 
feet  wide. 

There  are  three  great  prayers,  the  potency 
of  which  is  extolled  continually  and  in  the 
strongest  possible  language.  These  are  the 
Ahuna  vairya,  the  Ashem  Vohu,  and  the 
Yenhe  Hatam. 

The  Ahuna  vairya  is  so  called  from  the  three 
initial  words  Tathd  ahu  vairyo.  It  existed 
before  heaven,  earth,  water  or  fire ;  and  it  is 
the  most  effective  weapon  that  Ahura  Mazda 
himself  can^  use  to  crush  the  demons.  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  of  this  very  im- 
portant part  of  the  Avesta  we  have  at  least 
six  conflicting  versions  from  scholars  of  high 
name.  In  the  midst  of  this  perplexity,  the 
ordinary  Parsi  will  console  himself  with  the 
reflection  that  the  efficiency  of  the  prayer 
depends  entirely  on  the  right  sounds  being 
uttered,  and  not  at  all  on  the  sense  attached 
to  them.  But  we  cannot  be  certain  even  of 
the  sounds ;  for  the  commentary  on  the  prayer 
given  in  the  nineteenth  chapter  (Ha)  of  the 
Yasna  must  be  founded  on  readings  consider- 
ably different  from  those  which  the  present 
MSS.  contain.  The  translation  of  Haug  is  the 
following  :  "  As  a  heavenly  lord  is  to  be  chosen, 


ZOROASTRIANISM  137 

so  is  an  earthly  master  (spiritual  guide')  for  the 
sake  of  righteousness,  to  be  the  giver  of  the  good 
thoughts,  the  good  actions  of  life  towards  Mazda  ; 
and  the  dominion  is  for  the  Lord  (ahura)  whom 
he  has  given  as  a  protector  to  the  poor?'1  With 
all  possible  respect  for  the  learned  man  who 
supplies  this  version,  it  is  almost  impossible 
that  this  can  be  the  meaning  of  the  most 
potent,  "  most  fiend-smiting "  prayer  in  the 
Avesta.  Professor  de  Harlez  paraphrases  it 
thus  :  "  As  there  exists  a  supreme  master,  perfect, 
so  there  is  a  master  of  the  law  established  to 
maintain  and  propagate  holiness  ;  the  regulator 
of  good  thoughts  and  of  actions  springing  out  of 
the  order  of  things  referring  to  Mazda. 
Sovereign  power  belongs  to  Ahura  ;  he  has  con- 
stituted him  (viz.  the  master  of  the  law) 
protector  (shepherd}  of  the  poor"  Professor 
Darmesteter  renders  the  prayer  as  follows : 
The  will  of  the  Lord  is  the  law  of  holiness. 
The  riches  of  Vohumano  shall  be  given  to  him 
who  works  in  the  world  for  Mazda,  and  wields 
according  to  the  will  of  Ahura  the  power  he 
gave  him  to  relieve  the  poor"  The  sense  of  the 
last  rendering  is  clear;  but  it  is  not  easy  to 
see  how  the  Professor  extracts  it  from  the 
present  text.  Finally,  let  it  be  remembered 


138  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

that  holiness  or  righteousness,  as  used  in  this 
passage  and  elsewhere  in  the  Avesta,  means 
merely  ceremonial  purity. 

The  Ashem  Vohu  prayer,  which,  if  not  so 
potent,  is  used  still  more  frequently  than  the 
Ahuna  vairya,  is  translated  by  Haug  as  follows  : 
"  Righteousness  is  the  best  good ;  a  blessing  it  is  ; 
a  blessing  be  to  that  which  is  righteousness 
towards  perfect  righteousness."  Darmesteter 
makes  it :  "  Holiness  is  the  best  of  all  good. 
Well  is  it  for  that  holiness  which  is  perfection 
of  holiness." 

Fasting  occupies  so  important  a  place  in 
most  systems  of  religion,  that  its  entire  absence 
from  the  list  of  prescribed  duties  in  the  Avesta 
attracts  the  more  attention.  There  is  no  trace 
of  asceticism  in  the  Avesta  precepts  or  the 
Pars!  practice. 

Marriage  is  much  encouraged.  It  is  implied 
that  monogamy  was  the  general  rule.  Yet 
one  extraordinary  practice  is  fully  recognised 
in  the  later  books  of  the  Avesta — marriage 
with  the  nearest  of  kin. 

Prostitution,  adultery,  sodomy,  and  such 
crimes  are  strongly  denounced. 

The  observance  of  magical  rites  is  in  a  few 
cases  mentioned  and  reprobated. 


ZOROASTRIANISM  1 39 

The  Avesta  dwells  with  all  possible  earnest- 
ness on  the  importance  of  agriculture.  Its 
ideas  on  this  subject  are  embodied  in  quaint, 
and  sometimes  coarse,  phraseology;  but  it  is 
interesting  to  note  the  anxiety  of  the  authors 
of  the  Avesta  that  the  people  should  cease  to 
be  nomadic  and  take  to  a  settled  life.  "  Whoso 
cultivates  barley  cultivates  righteousness." 

The  putting  to  death  of  the  creatures  of  the 
evil  principle  is  a  high  religious  duty.  If  the 
division  of  animals  into  good  and  bad  had  been 
less  arbitrary,  this  might  have  called  forth  a 
half-approving  smile;  but  when  we  hear  of 
tortoises,  frogs,  cats,  ants,  etc.,  being  proscribed, 
we  are  somewhat  startled.  With  all  the  efforts 
of  the  Avesta  to  be  exact,  there  seems  to  be 
no  division  of  fishes,  and  no  clear  division 
of  birds,  into  good  and  bad.  Every  creature 
being  either  of  divine  or  demoniac  origin,  this 
omission  is — on  the  principles  of  the  Avesta 
itself — a  grievous  fault. 

The  place  assigned  to  the  dog  is  very 
notable.  One  entire  division  of  the  Avesta 
is  devoted  to  the  celebration  of  his  excellence. 

Physical  and  ceremonial  defilements  are  put 
on  a  level  with  moral  offences.  Contact  with 
a  dead  body — especially  that  of  a  man  or  dog 


i4o  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

— must  with  all  possible  care  be  avoided.  To 
bury  or  burn  a  corpse  is  an  unpardonable 
crime.  So  is  it  for  one  man  to  carry  a  dead 
body. 

We  can  with  all  confidence  regard  the 
present  Pars!  sacred  books  as  having  been 
recognised  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century  after  Christ.  Revision  went  on  till 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixth.  Doubtless  most 
or  all  of  them  were  composed  still  earlier,  but 
how  much,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  de- 
termine. Since  that  time  they  have  probably 
remained  almost  unchanged. 

Possibly  some  part  of  the  Avesta  may  have 
been  composed  by  Zoroaster  himself  or  his 
contemporaries.  But  here  again  a  serious 
difficulty  presents  itself.  The  date  of  Zoroaster 
has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy. 
On  the  whole,  it  is  probable  that  he  lived 
nearly  three  hundred  years  before  the  invasion 
of  Persia  by  Alexander  of  Macedon  in  331  B.C. 
He  was  probably  born  in  the  west  of  Media. 
He  seems  to  have  preached  with  little  accep- 
tance there,  but  with  much  acceptance  in 
Eastern  Persia  or  Bactria.  The  King  of 
Bactria,  called  by  Persian  writers  Vishtaspa, 


ZORO  ASTRI ANISM  1 4 1 

is  said  to  have  become  a  convert,  and  to  have 
brought  over  many  of  his  subjects  to  the  new 
faith.  Finally,  Zoroaster  is  said  to  have  died 
— at  the  age  of  seventy-seven — murdered,  say 
some,  when  ministering  at  the  altar,  or  rather 
perhaps  slain  in  battle,  along  with  his  patron 
King  Vishtaspa,  by  the  same  wild  nomads  who 
at  a  somewhat  later  time  cut  off  the  great 
Cyrus.  Vishtaspa  carried  on  wars  for  the 
extension  of  the  Zoroastrian  faith,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  believe  that  Zoroaster  did  not 
approve  of  these,  and  share  in  them. 

The  early  Persians,  as  the  Greeks  inform 
us,  possessed  an  extensive  religious  literature. 
But  in  the  long  lapse  of  ages  the  greater  part 
of  this  has  perished.  The  portion  that  remains 
is  about  the  size  of  our  Bible.  It  is  divided 
into  five  great  parts,  but  Haug  was  justified 
in  designating  the  whole  collection  "frag- 
mentary and  chaotic."  Songs,  prayers,  laws, 
legends,  with  strange  omissions  and  repetitions 
— such  is  the  Avesta  as  we  find  it. 

It  consists  of  the  following  parts : — 

1.  The  Yasna,  including  the  five  Gathas  or 
Hymns. 

2.  The  Vendidad. 

3.  The  Vispered. 


1 42  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

4.  The  Yashts. 

5.  A    few    short    prayers    called    Afrigan, 
Nyayish  and  Gah. 

6.  The  Sirozah,  a  calendar  of  the  days  of 
the  month. 

The  meaning  of  the  word  Yasna  is  sacrifice. 
This  division  of  the  Yasna  contains  the  prayers 
that  are  offered  along  with  sacrificial  rites. 
The  Gathas,  however,  form  its  most  important 
part.  These  are  written  in  a  different  dialect 
from  the  rest  of  the  Avesta,  and  may  perhaps 
be  more  ancient. 

The  Vendidad  is  the  law-book.  The  name 
is  characteristic;  it  means  given  against  the 
demons. 

The  Vispered  contains  prayers  very  similar 
to  those  in  the  Yasna.  The  name  means  all 
heads  or  all  chiefs.  The  chief  objects  of  the 
good  creation  are  invoked  in  it. 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  see  any  principle 
determining  the  division  and  arrangement  of 
the  sacred  book.  It  almost  seems  as  if  the 
various  recovered  parts  of  the  Avesta  had 
been  huddled  together  as  they  came  to  hand. 

The  Avesta  contains  no  system  of  homo- 
geneous doctrine.  The  Gathas  are  almost,  if 
not  wholly,  monotheistic.  The  Vendidad  leans 


ZOROASTRIANISM 


'43 


towards  dualism.  In  the  Yashts  the  faith  can 
hardly  be  distinguished  from  polytheism. 

The  theology  of  the  Gathas  is  remarkable. 
They  acknowledge  Ahuramazda  as  the  supreme 
divinity.  Now,  there  is  little  or  no  doubt 
that  this  being  was  originally  the  same  as 
Varuna  Asura  of  the  Vedas,  who  also  in 
pre-Vedic  days  was  probably  acknowledged  as 
the  supreme  divinity,  and  retains  throughout 
the  Vedas  a  distinct  pre-eminence  as  the  god 
of  heaven,  i.e.  the  distant,  pure,  cloudless 
heaven. 

But  the  striking  thing  is  that  while,  as  time 
went  on,  the  Indian  deity  sank  in  character 
and  power,  the  Persian  deity  never  did  so. 
The  Persian  system  never  fell  into  either  gross 
polytheism  or  pantheism.  If  not  pure  mono- 
theism, it  generally  comes  very  near  it. 

The  two  races,  the  Hindu  (or  Aryan)  and 
Persian,  had  once  lived  in  close  proximity  to 
each  other  and  worshipped  the  same  gods. 
The  one  body  was  pastoral  and  largely 
nomadic.  The  other  lived  a  settled  life  and 
cultivated  the  soil ;  in  fact,  there  is  no  duty 
on  which  the  Avesta  insists  more  zealously 
than  this.  Quarrels  easily  arose ;  and  by  the 
time  the  Avesta  was  composed  there  was  deep 


144  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

hostility.  Hating  the  Aryans,  it  was  easy  for 
the  Persians  to  hate  their  gods.  The  Persian 
faith  was  by  and  by  reformed,  as  the  Parsis 
assert,  by  Zoroaster  ;  and  many  of  the  gods  of 
the  Hindus  came  to  be  called  devils  by  the 
Persians.  It  is  highly  probable  that  there  had 
been  a  great  struggle  in  which  the  Persians 
were  victorious.  And  this  might  well  have 
been  one  chief  reason  for  the  Aryas  seeking  a 
home  in  India  beyond  the  snowy  mountains. 

One  cause  of  the  difference  between  the 
two  religions  I  have  already  suggested ;  the 
Persians  probably  extended  their  hatred  of 
the  Aryas  to  their  religion.  But  this  is  not 
sufficient  to  explain  the  great  divergence  of 
the  systems. 

It  is  a  most  interesting  problem :  what 
occasioned  this  strong  distinction  between  the 
two  religions  ?  In  other  words,  what  led  to 
the  great  reformation  which  is  attributed  to 
Zoroaster  ? 

I  do  not  wish  to  dogmatise,  and  will  only 
mention  one  or  two  historical  facts,  which  must 
not  be  ignored,  and  which  seem  to  bear  directly 
on  the  question.  The  Ten  Tribes,  when 
carried  captive  by  the  Assyrians,  were  conveyed 


ZOROASTRIANISM  145 

to  "Halah  and  Razor,  the  river  of  Gozan, 
and  the  cities  of  the  Medes"  Now  Zoroaster 
was  very  probably  a  Mede.  His  earnest  and 
inquiring  mind  surely  could  not  have  come  in 
contact  with  the  Israelites  and  learned  nothing 
from  them.  The  carrying  away  of  the  tribes 
from  Palestine  took  place  in  723-721  B.C. 
The  probable  date  of  Zoroaster  was  a  little 
later.  And  when  afterwards  the  two  tribes  of 
the  Jews  were  carried  into  Babylonia,  only  the 
most  friendly  relations  existed  between  them 
and  their  deliverers,  the  Persians.  The  acute 
critic  Darmesteter  admits  that  the  Avesta 
"represents  essentially  the  religion  of  the  early 
Persians,"  but  holds  that,  "in  consequence  of 
intercourse  with  the  Greeks  and  Jews,  it  is 
now  pervaded  all  through  with  new  principles." 
He  maintains  that  this  took  place  chiefly  after 
the  conquest  of  Persia  by  Alexander.  So  be 
it,  but  I  contend  that  the  Hebrew  influence 
began  nearly  three  hundred  years  before 
Alexander,  and  probably  never  entirely  ceased. 
Canon  de  Harlez  earnestly  maintains  this.  I 
am  far  from  saying  that  the  Persian  concep- 
tion of  Ahuramazda  rises  to  the  sublimity  of 
the  Hebrew  conception  of  Jehovah ;  still,  when 
we  remember  the  ideas  which  even  the  cultured 


146  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Greeks  and  Romans  entertained  of  their  gods, 
it  is  truly  remarkable  that  the  comparatively 
uncultured  Persians  should  have  believed  in 
one  God,  a  great  and  wise  and  holy  God,  and 
that  throughout  their  whole  history  they  have 
kept  themselves  free  from  image-worship. 

Ahuramazda  is  surrounded  by  a  hierarchy  of 
celestial  beings,  called  Amesha-Spentas,  or 
uholy  immortals."  Their  names  sound  like 
attributes  of  God — and  such  they  probably 
were  at  first;  though  gradually  they  were 
held  to  be  a  kind  of  council.  There  is  also 
a  somewhat  inferior  class  of  Yazatas,  whom  we 
may  call  angels. 

Great  is  the  importance  attached  to  Fire,  and 
the  being  presiding  over  it  occupies  the  highest 
place  among  the  angels.  The  Parsis  have  often 
been  called  fire-worshippers  ;  but,  now  at  least, 
they  earnestly  contend  they  do  not  adore  fire  ; 
they  only  pay  it  reverence,  as  the  purest  symbol 
of  the  unseen  Deity. 

The  ancient  Persians  were  very  deeply 
impressed  by  the  existence  and  power  of  Evil, 
evil  in  the  physical  world,  and  evil  in  the  heart 
of  man.  They  came  very  soon  to  believe  that 
its  existence  was  owing  to  the  power  of  a 
personal  being,  whom  they  called  Angra 


ZORO  ASTRI ANISM  1 47 

Mainyus  or  Ahriman.  He  is  entirely  antagon- 
istic to  Ahuramazda — as  opposite  as  darkness  is 
to  light.  There  is  continual  war  between  the 
two  powers,  and,  though  the  omnipotence  of 
the  good  power  is  never  denied,  the  two  sides 
are  so  nearly  matched,  that  we  have  at  times 
almost  a  doctrine  of  Dualism  rather  than  of 
Monotheism.  But  this  probably  came  at  a 
later  time. 

The  worshipper  of  Ahuramazda  is  com- 
manded to  put  forth  his  utmost  efforts  to 
counteract  the  works  of  the  evil  power.  We 
have  nothing  like  this  in  the  Hindu  books,  and 
it  is  a  noble  characteristic  of  the  Persian 
system.  Active  energy  in  support  of  the  right 
and  the  true  was  deemed  imperative ;  inaction 
was  almost  as  culpable  as  opposition  to  the 
good. 

No  doubt,  when  they  sought  to  destroy  the 
works  of  the  evil  being,  they  were  led  to  some 
very  strange  conclusions.  For  they  had  divided 
all  things  and  all  creatures  into  two  great 
camps,  so  to  speak.  Every  creature,  every 
thing,  was  on  the  side  either  of  Ahuramazda 
or  Ahriman.  Thus,  the  dog  was  good,  but  the 
cat  was  bad.  The  fixed  stars  were  all  on  the 
side  of  the  good  principle;  the  planets  were 


148  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

with  the  evil  one.  Stranger  still,  most  trees 
were  good  ;  but  the  bark  was  the  work  of 
demons.  If  I  wished  to  amuse  my  readers, 
other  examples  equally  droll  might  be  supplied  ; 
but  I  have  no  heart  to  laugh,  nor,  I  am  sure, 
have  you,  at  the  attempts  of  a  simple-minded, 
earnest  race  to  solve  the  high  problems  of  the 
universe. 

The  great  struggle  between  good  and  evil 
is  said  to  last  for  12,000  years,  and  we  are 
in  the  midst  of  it.  It  will  terminate  in  the 
complete  destruction  of  the  Evil  Power  and 
all  his  works.  It  is  sometimes  implied  that 
Ahriman  is  not  finally  destroyed,  but  restored 
to  truth  and  goodness. 

So  much  for  moral  evil.  But  there  is  not 
only  moral  evil  in  the  world;  there  is  also 
physical ;  there  is  sickness — there  is  suffering. 
Whence  came  they?  The  answer  of  the 
Persians  to  this  question  shows  us  one  of 
the  weakest  things  in  their  theology.  They 
never  rise  to  the  conception  of  sorrow  as 
discipline — as  a  preparation  for  purer  service 
and  higher  joy.  They  never  say  with  our 
English  poet,  "Sweet  are  the  uses  of 
adversity."  They  did  not  believe  that  suffer- 
ing of  any  kind  could  come  from  the  Good 


ZOROASTRIANISM  149 

Principle,  for  He  is  invariably  kind;  it  could 
only  be  the  work  of  the  great  enemy.  Now, 
this  confounding  of  physical  and  moral  evil 
is  of  course  a  fundamental  mistake  and  has 
far-reaching  consequences ;  and  I  should  be 
thankful  to  know  that  all  well-educated  Parsis 
had  been  able  to  get  rid  of  the  error.  I  fear 
they  hold  that  bodily  sickness  is  caused  by 
some  one  of  the  multitude  of  demons  that  are 
ever  ready  to  assault  human  beings ;  and  that 
they  are  themselves  blamable  for  the  sickness, 
because  the  demon  would  have  had  no  power 
to  afflict  them  if  they  had  been  on  their  guard 
against  him. 

The  teaching  of  the  Gathas  (hymns)  is 
very  simple.  We  hear  of  the  greatness  and 
goodness  of  Ahuramazda  who  is  called  "the 
primeval  spirit,"  uthe  essence  of  truth,"  uthe 
creator  of  all  good  creatures."  There  are 
earnest  exhortations  to  avoid  all  evil  and  to 
be  pure  in  thought,  word  and  deed.  Very 
great  stress  is  laid  on  leading  a  settled  life 
and  cultivating  the  soil.  In  reference  to  the 
nomadic  races  around,  who  were  always  on 
the  watch  to  attack  them,  the  language  is 
exceedingly  stern.  "Slay  the  liars;  kill  the 
wicked  with  the  sword":  such  words  are 


150  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

frequent  and  far  from  pleasant ;  but  we  must 
remember  that  the  Zoroastrians  earnestly  de- 
sired peace,  while  the  tribes  around  were 
bent  on  war.  It  was  simply  a  question  of 
slaying  or  being  slain. 

In  the  remarkable  rock-inscriptions  made 
by  the  great  Darius  at  Behistun  (Bisitun), 
Auramazda  (so  the  name  is  given)  is  distinctly 
called  "the  greatest  of  all  objects  of  worship." 
This  is  in  accordance  with  the  Gathas.  We 
must  remember  that  there  are  a  multitude  of 
beings  among  whom  Ahuramazda,  though 
supreme,  is  not  alone  worshipped.  Indeed, 
there  is  nothing  in  the  good  creation — the 
world  as  made  by  God — that  may  not  receive 
a  reverence  which  is  hardly  distinguishable 
from  worship.  Prayer  is  addressed  not  only 
to  the  Supreme  Being  but  to  angels  and  arch- 
angels, to  human  souls,  the  souls  of  animals, 
springs  of  water,  mountains,  and  so  on.  This 
looks  very  like  Hindu  polytheism;  but  there 
still  exists  this  great  distinction — that  in  the 
Persian  system  God  always  remains  immeasur- 
ably above  all  other  beings.  If  we  were  to 
call  them  polytheists,  the  Parsis  would  com- 
plain bitterly.  In  this  connection  we  must 
remember  that  there  are  fellow-Christians  of 


ZOROASTRI ANISM  1 5 1 

ours  who  pray  to  saints  and  angels,  and  yet 
we  never  call  them  polytheists. 

With  regard  to  the  ritual,  the  sacrifice  of 
animals  was  frequent  in  the  earliest  times. 
The  ancient  hero  Thraetono  is  said  to  have 
offered  up  a  hundred  horses,  a  thousand  oxen, 
and  ten  thousand  sheep.  This  doubtless  is 
a  mere  legend,  but  it  shows  the  bent  of  the 
people's  mind.  The  animals  offered  seem 
to  have  been  specially  horses  and  camels.  In 
speaking  on  Hinduism  I  mentioned  that  the 
most  splendid  sacrifice  was  that  of  the  horse. 
Apparently  it  had  been  handed  down  from 
the  time  when  the  Persians  and  Hindus  were 
united,  and  before  the  arrival  of  the  Hindus 
in  India. 

In  later  days  we  find  that  Xerxes  sacrificed 
horses  to  the  river  Strymon.  At  another  time 
he  sacrificed  on  the  site  of  Troy  a  thousand 
oxen,  and  the  Magi  who  were  with  him  offered 
white  horses ;  and  again,  he  poured  a  libation 
out  of  a  golden  cup  into  the  sea.  The  sea 
was  part  of  the  good  creation,  which  doubtless 
the  Persian  king  was  in  the  habit  of  worship- 
ping; but  Herodotus  tells  us  that  when  the 
waves  of  the  Hellespont  had  broken  down  the 
bridge  which  he  had  constructed  between 


152   THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Sestos  and  Abydos,  he  ordered  that  it  should 
be  punished  by  three  hundred  stripes  being 
inflicted  on  the  water,  and  further  that  a  pair 
of  fetters  should  be  thrown  into  it.  "I  have 
even  heard,"  says  the  historian,  "  that  he  sent 
persons  to  brand  the  Hellespont  with  a  hot 
iron."  These  follies  seem  hardly  credible ; 
yet  things  not  very  dissimilar  have  happened 
even  lately.  I  well  remember  the  time  when 
a  distinguished  Parsi  merchant  of  Bombay, 
when  he  was  sending  a  great  consignment  of 
opium  to  China,  endeavoured  to  secure  an  easy 
passage  for  it  by  pouring  300  tubs  of  sugar- 
candy  into  the  deep — or,  I  rather  think,  3000. 
I  am  not  aware  that  the  temper  of  the  Ocean 
was  much  sweetened  by  the  offering. 

Animal  sacrifices  are  distinctly  prescribed  in 
the  Pars!  law-book,  the  Vendidad.  These 
were  offered  down  to  a  comparatively  recent 
time ;  but  they  have  now  completely  ceased. 

Almost  everything  was  personalised  in  the 
Pars!  system.  The  things  so  dealt  with  were 
reverenced  if  good,  but  hated  and  warred 
against  if  evil.  Parsiism,  as  Darmesteter 
has  said,  is  "rich  in  demons";  and  cer- 
tainly the  number  of  evil  creatures  who  are 
ready  to  assail  the  Parsi,  and  against  whom 


ZOROASTRIANISM  1 53 

he  must  stand  continually  on  his  guard,  is 
amazingly  large.  The  English  language  does 
not  suffice  to  name  one  half  of  them — storm- 
fiends,  demoniac  nymphs,  fairies,  hob-goblins, 
and  wizards  that  are  as  bad  as  fiends.  This 
terrible  fight  is  continued  even  in  the  "sea" 
above  the  sky.  The  great  means  of  over- 
coming them  is  the  uttering  of  some  holy 
word — that  is  to  say,  a  spell  or  incantation. 
Of  all  these  creatures  I  specially  notice  one. 
That  is  Aeshma  deva — "  the  roaring  demon," 
who  in  later  days  became  almost  as  terrible  as 
Ahriman  himself.  He  seems  mentioned  in  the 
Apocrypha  under  the  name,  hardly  changed, 
of  Asmodeus. 

The  Avesta  has  only  a  very  circumscribed 
range  of  doctrine.  That  may  be  partly  ex- 
plained by  the  loss  of  sacred  books ;  but  as 
far  as  we  can  discover,  the  Persians  were 
always  men  of  action  rather  than  of  thought. 
No  doubt  the  activity  often  assumed  strange 
forms.  Thus  it  was  the  solemn  duty  of  the 
Parsi  to  destroy — as  far  as  in  him  lay — the 
living  productions  of  the  evil  power.  If  the 
division  into  good  and  bad  had  been  less 
arbitrary,  this  command  might  have  called 
forth  a  half-approving  smile;  for  the  destruc- 


154  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

tion  of  noxious  creatures,  such  as  tigers  and 
serpents,  is  surely  an  excellent  thing.  But 
when  we  see  that  frogs  and  ants  and  a  whole 
host  of  other  innocent  creatures  are  put  under 
the  ban,  we  are  considerably  startled.  The 
condemnation  was,  of  course,  the  result  of 
pure  ignorance ;  and,  as  such,  it  is  now  visibly, 
though  slowly,  passing  away.  The  prejudice 
against  cats,  however,  as  far  as  I  am  aware, 
continues  to  this  day.  Pars!  children  have  no 
playmate  in  pussy.  I  am  sorry  for  pussy,  and 
still  sorrier  for  the  children. 

Among  all  animals  the  dog  is  the  special 
favourite.  We  can  understand  this.  The 
watchful  house-dog  and  the  shepherd's  dog 
were  of  course  invaluable.  I  am  not  aware 
whether  there  were  lap-dogs,  I  presume  there 
were ;  I  leave  it  to  the  ladies  to  guess.  But 
the  dog  of  dogs  is  the  water-dog.  Who  he 
is  I  have  tried  in  vain  to  discover.  A  Pars! 
friend  thinks  it  was  some  fabulous  mythological 
creature — something  like  a  water-kelpie  (well- 
known  in  Scottish  song)  shall  we  say  ?  The 
murder  of  any  dog  is  a  great  offence,  but  the 
murder  of  a  water-dog  is  inconceivably  heinous. 
The  punishments  assigned  to  the  various  crimes 
are  certainly  perplexing.  Thus,  manslaughter 


ZOROASTRIANISM  155 

is  visited  with  ninety  stripes,  but  the  murder 
of  a  water-dog  deserves  ten  thousand  stripes. 

It  seems  impossible  that  legislation  of  this 
sort  could  ever  have  been  practically  carried 
out.  It  could  not  have  been  so  under  the 
earlier  Persian  empire,  and  probably  not  even 
in  the  later  empire,  that  of  the  Sasanians. 
The  law-book  of  the  Avesta — the  Vendidad — 
presents  the  later  priestly  idea  of  right  and 
wrong  rather  than  State  jurisprudence,  and 
I  think  we  may  dismiss  the  belief  that  legisla- 
tion of  this  kind  could  ever  have  been  more 
than  a  sacerdotal  recommendation  or  theory. 

It  is  satisfactory  to  be  able  to  quote  the 
statement  of  Pars!  theology  made  a  few  years 
ago  by  a  late  chief  priest  of  the  body  in 
Bombay : — 

"The  one  holy  and  glorious  Lord,  the 
Creator  of  both  worlds,  I  acknowledge.  He 
has  no  form  and  no  equal.  There  was  nothing 
before  Him;  He  always  is,  and  always  will 
remain.  God  has  no  shape ;  He  is  enveloped 
in  holy,  pure,  brilliant,  incomparable  light.  No 
one  can  adequately  praise  Him.  Among  in- 
visibles He  is  invisible.  The  Lord  is  greatly 
superior  to  angels.  He  is  present  in  every 
place.  He  is  almighty.  He  is  most  just 


156  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

and  wise.  He  is  worthy  of  service  and 
praise,  and  "imperative  is  His  demand  for 
obedience." 

These  are  remarkable  utterances;  let  it  be 
noted  that  I  have  only  very  slightly  condensed 
the  prolix  Oriental  phraseology,  leaving  the 
sense  entirely  unchanged.  I  believe  the  high 
priest  knew  no  English,  and  had  drawn  no 
idea  from  any  European  books — though,  doubt- 
less, Christian  thought  was  "  in  the  air." 

Somewhat  less  authoritative,  but  perfectly 
trustworthy,  is  a  statement  from  another 
quarter.  It  is  a  quotation  from  a  Pars! 
Catechism. 

Question.  "What  commands  has  God  given 
us  through  His  prophet,  the  holy  Zoroaster  ? " 

Answer.  "  To  know  God  as  one  ;  to  know 
the  prophet,  the  exalted  Zartosht,  as  the  true 
prophet ;  to  believe  the  religion  and  the  book 
brought  by  him  as  true  beyond  all  manner  of 
doubt;  to  believe  in  the  goodness  of  God; 
not  to  disobey  any  commands  of  the  holy 
(Mazdiasnian)  religion;  to  avoid  evil  deeds; 
to  strive  after  good  deeds ;  to  pray  five  times 
daily  ;  to  believe  in  the  just  award  pronounced 
the  fourth  morning  after  death ;  to  hope  for 
heaven  and  fear  hell ;  to  believe  firmly  in  the 


ZORO  ASTRIANISM  157 

day  of  general  resurrection ;  .   .  .  and  to  face 
some  luminous  object  while  worshipping  God." 

With  regard  to  the  last  expression,  let  me 
observe  that  it  is  used  with  some  latitude. 
Thus  the  Parsi  often  prays  facing  the  sea,  as 
an  important  part  of  the  good  creation. 

This  reminds  one  of  the  excuse  the  Hindus 
always  offer  for  their  idolatry.  An  image, 
they  say,  is  necessary  for  them  to  fix  the  mind 
upon,  which  otherwise  would  wander  and  lose 
itself.  I  have  always  felt  this  answer — when 
not  proudly  but  sorrowfully  given — to  be 
most  pathetic.  I  need  not  stop  to  say  how 
Christianity  meets  this  great  necessity. 

In  many  systems  of  religion,  Asceticism,  i.e.- 
bodily  mortification,  plays  a  very  important 
part;  specially  is  this  true  of  Hinduism,  in 
which  it  assumes  a  most  extravagant  posi- 
tion, amounting  sometimes  to  religious  suicide. 
In  Zoroastrianism,  however,  there  is  not  the 
slightest  trace  of  asceticism.  On  the  contrary, 
the  Pars!  must  eat  well  and  drink  well,  and,  as 
far  as  in  him  lies,  keep  his  body  strong,  so  as 
to  be  better  able  to  repel  the  attacks  of  his 
enemies  the  demons. 

The  Parsi  believes  in  heaven  and  in  hell. 
After  death  the  soul  continues  beside  the  body 


158  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

for  three  nights,  and  then  the  good  soul 
advances  by  a  pleasant  path  to  heaven, 
Garodman,  or  the  abode  of  song.  The  evil 
soul  proceeds  by  a  very  unpleasant  road  till  it 
sinks  into  hell. 

We  hear  not  unfrequently  of  the  Chinvat 
bridge,  or,  "  the  bridge  of  the  gatherer,"  which 
extends  over  hell.  To  the  good  man  it 
broadens  out  into  a  pathway  which  he  tra- 
verses with  ease ;  to  the  bad  man  it  becomes 
narrow,  yea,  sharp  as  a  razor's  edge  ;  and  so 
he  falls  into  the  abyss  below. 

But  besides  the  decidedly  good  and  bad 
there  is  a  third  class — not  good  enough  for 
heaven  or  bad  enough  for  hell.  This  kind 
of  soul  is  kept  till  the  resurrection  in  the  open 
space  between  earth  and  the  fixed  stars,  where 
it  suffers  from  the  variations  of  heat  and  cold. 

With  regard  to  the  future  of  the  world 
the  views  of  the  Zoroastrians  are  clear 
and  definite.  As  the  end  draws  near,  the 
powers  of  evil  become  increasingly  active. 
Three  great  prophets  are  successively  sent, 
who  labour  to  restore  the  Zoroastrian  religion. 
The  last  and  greatest  is  Soshyans  (Sosiosh),  a 
name  which  may  be  translated  Saviour.  He  is 
a  son  of  Zoroaster,  miraculously  born.  Having 


ZOROASTRIANISM  159 

completely  vanquished  all  opposition,  he  raises 
the  dead.  The  just  and  unjust  are  then 
separated.  The  unjust  are  thrown  into  hell 
for  three  days.  The  metals  in  the  mountains 
melt  with  heat  and  flow  over  the  earth  in  a 
mighty  stream.  All  have  to  pass  through  this 
melted  metal,  but  to  the  good  it  feels  only 
like  warm  milk.  All  are  cleansed  ;  a  draught 
of  haomo  juice  is  supplied  to  them,  and  men 
become  immortal. 

But  the  powers  of  evil  gather  for  one  final 
and  tremendous  effort.  Each  archangel  grasps 
an  archfiend;  and  finally  Ahriman  and  the 
dragon  Az  flee  away  to  darkness  and  misery. 
Even  hell  itself,  however,  is  purified ;  it  is 
united  to  earth ;  and  the  world  thereafter 
reposes  in  everlasting  purity  and  peace. 

The  Avesta  is  by  no  means  always  consistent ; 
but  the  view  now  stated  is,  on  the  whole,  the 
more  prevalent  one.  The  ancient  Zoroastrians 
cherished  the  hope,  if  not  the  firm  belief,  that 
good  would  eventually  triumph  over  evil,  and 
indeed  that  all  men  would  finally  be  purified 
and  happy. 

We  may  now  glance  for  a  moment  at 
Zoroastrian  worship.  The  fire-temples — fire- 
houses  rather — are  all  buildings  of  a  single 


160  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

storey,  and  are  never  constructed  with  any 
splendour.  They  consist  of  three  compart- 
ments. The  first  is  large.  Both  priests  and 
people  gather  there,  and  generally  converse 
together,  sitting.  A  wall,  with  a  door  in  it, 
divides  this  from  the  second  compartment, 
which  is  a  small  square  room.  Many  little 
bells  hang  about,  which  the  worshipper  rings. 
He  does  not  sit  down.  The  third  compartment 
only  a  priest  can  enter.  An  officiating  priest 
is  always  there,  dressed  in  long  white  robes, 
his  hands  covered  with  white  cloths,  his 
face  veiled.  There  is  an  urn  of  bronze,  or 
perhaps  of  silver,  on  an  erection  five  or  six  feet  in 
diameter,  in  which  there  is  fire,  never  smoulder- 
ing, always  blazing.  Day  and  night  the  priests 
feed  this  fire  with  fragrant  sandalwood.  The 
worshipper  lays  downs  his  offering  of  sandal- 
wood  on  the  ground  at  the  entrance.  He  must 
not  touch  the  priest.  The  priest  takes  up  the 
wood  with  a  tongs  and  gives  the  worshipper 
some  ashes  with  a  small  brass  spoon.  The 
worshipper  faces  the  fire  and  prays  in  Zend. 
Does  he  understand  the  meaning  of  the  words  ? 
Very  seldom,  I  presume.  But  the  sounds  are 
sacred. 

We  must  all  feel  that  this   is  a   painfully 


ZORO  ASTRIANISM  1 6 1 

meagre  service.  If  it  can  be  called  public 
worship,  it  is  in  no  sense  social  worship.  There 
is  no  singing,  no  reading,  of  the  sacred  books ; 
and  no  preaching. 

But  there  is  also  what  we  may  call  domestic 
worship.  Each  family  has  a  priest.  He  brings 
sea  water  and  sprinkles  it  on  the  door-posts 
every  morning  and  evening.  He  prays  as  he 
sprinkles  the  sea  water,  and  repeats  the  names 
of  all  the  members  of  the  family.  This 
surely  is  a  significant  and  striking  thing. 
Every  morning  and  evening  also  the  priest 
bears  a  little  brass  pan  (censer)  into  every 
corner  of  the  house. 

It  would  be  the  greatest  of  calamities  and  of 
sins  if  the  fire  in  the  fire-temple  were  allowed 
to  go  out.  It  would  be  a  great  calamity  also 
if  the  domestic  fire  were  allowed  to  do  so. 

The  most  peculiar  of  the  observances  of  the 
Parsis  is  their  way  of  disposing  of  the  dead. 

The  dead  body  is  believed  to  be  utterly 
polluted  and  polluting.  It  cannot  be  buried, 
for  it  would  pollute  the  earth.  It  cannot  be 
burnt,  for  that  would  pollute  the  fire.  The 
Parsis  expose  the  corpse  on  what  is  called  "a 
tower  of  silence,"  which  is  built  in  some 
lonely  place.  Vast  numbers  of  vultures 
L 


1 62   THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

collect  there,  and  keep  diligent  watch.  The 
body  is  brought  into  the  inclosure  and  laid 
down.  The  clothes  are  torn  off,  and  the  body 
is  fully  exposed.  The  vultures  instantly  swoop 
down  upon  it  and  in  an  incredibly  short  time 
only  the  bare  skeleton  remains,  which  is  then 
thrown  into  the  great  general  receptacle  below. 

The  proportion  of  men  among  the  Parsis 
who  have  raised  themselves  to  distinction  is  by 
no  means  small.  There  have  been  great  and 
successful  merchants;  there  have  been  great 
philanthropists  ;  two  have  been  members  of  the 
British  Parliament,  and  one  of  them  is  so  still. 

It  may  be  well  to  sum  up  very  briefly  the 
leading  points  on  which  the  Zoroastrian 
faith  decidedly  takes  precedence  of  Gentile 
systems  generally : — 

1.  It  ascribes  no  immoral  attributes  to  the 
object  of  worship. 

2.  It  sanctions  no  immoral  acts  as  a  part  of 
worship. 

3.  None  of  the  prescribed  forms  of  worship 
is  marked  by  cruelty. 

4.  In  the  great  contest  between  good  and 
evil  the  Zoroastrian  is  commanded  to  take  an 
active  share  in  support  of  the  good. 


ZORO  ASTRI ANISM  1 63 

5.  There  is  no  image- worship. 

6.  Polygamy  is  forbidden,  and  a  position  of 
respect  is  given  to  women. 

7.  Very  great  importance  is  attached  to  good 
thoughts,  words,  and  deeds. 

8.  The  Avesta  never  despairs  of  the  future. 
Good  will  finally  triumph. 

How  far  has  this  interesting  and  singularly 
compact  race  been  affected  by  Christianity  ? 

The  first  case  of  conversion  from  their  ranks 
occurred  in  1839.  Three  young  pupils  in  the 
Scottish  Missionary  Institution  desired  to  be 
baptised.  One  of  them  was  seized  by  his 
relatives  and  prevented  from  coming  forward 
the  other  two  were  baptised  and  lived  long  after- 
wards  as  faithful  missionaries.  One  of  them, 
still  alive,  is  the  venerable  and  much  esteemed 
Rev.  Dhanjibhai  Nauroji.  Equally  respected 
is  the  Rev.  Ruttonjee  Nasrojee  of  the  C.  M.  S. 
The  Sorabjee  family,  also,  have  long  had  a 
valuable  school  in  which  Christian  instruction 
is  given.  Miss  C.  Shapurji  has  studied  law 
and  fills  an  important  office  in  England. 

Within  a  few  years  past  there  has  been  an 
interesting    experiment    called    a    Missionary 


164  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Settlement  for  University  women.  The  ex- 
cellent ladies  connected  with  it  have  not  found 
the  Parsis  very  accessible  to  Christian  teaching. 
An  influential  paper  quickly  sounded  an  alarm. 
It  exclaimed  : — 

"  Pars!  brethren !  what  blindness  is  this  ? 
It  seems  as  if  mental  blindness  had  attacked 
some  Pars!  brethren.  Lady  graduates  have 
come  from  England  to  give  higher  education  to 
Pars!  girls.  All  honour  to  them  that  they 
have  not  concealed  their  purpose,  but  say 
openly  that  their  desire  is  to  teach  the  Christian 
religion.  It  is  our  duty  to  sound  the  trumpet 
of  warning.  The  very  foundations  of  the 
peace  and  happiness  of  many  are  being  slowly 
undermined.  There  are  Pars!  ladies  who  are 
graduates.  Why  are  they  not  employed? 
Pars!  women,  beware  !  " 

The  English  ladies  do  not  restrict  their 
efforts  to  school  teaching.  They  would  most 
gladly  give  Bible  lessons  to  their  Pars!  sisters. 
But  while  many  in  the  Parsi  community  are 
jealously  watching  every  movement,  these  ladies 
have  an  arduous  task  assigned  them.  Never- 
theless, let  them  persevere.  A  gentle,  pure, 
noble  Christian  life  is  never  lived  in  vain. 
The  tone  of  Pars!  society  will  be  raised  and 


ZOROASTRIANISM  165 

sweetened  even  though  there  should  be  no 
baptisms  for  a  considerable  time.  Perhaps, 
when  the  Parsis  come  to  Christ  they  will  come 
as  a  community,  not  merely  as  individuals. 
But  be  the  time  of  their  coming  near  or  far- 
off,  the  "Missionary  Settlement  for  University 
women"  will  be  seen,  when  that  day  arrives, 
to  have  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to 
bring  on  the  blessed  change. 

Strange  are  the  revolutions  in  history; 
strange  the  vicissitudes  that  befall  religions  as 
well  as  kingdoms.  It  was  the  belief  of  the 
ancient  Persians  that  the  whole  world  would 
be  converted  to  the  law  of  their  Prophet 
Zoroaster ;  and,  when  the  great  Darius  and 
his  successors  had  laid  Northern  India  under 
tribute,  had  overpowered  Asia  Minor  and 
Egypt,  and  were  hurling  their  huge  armaments 
against  the  coasts  of  Greece,  it  seemed  as  if 
the  daring  expectation  might  be  fulfilled.  But 
Marathon,  Thermopylae  and  Salami s  were  not 
fought  in  vain  ;  the  torrent  of  Asiatic  invasion 
was  stemmed,  and  the  civilisation  of  Hellas 
stood  secure.  Then  under  Alexander  of 
Macedon  Persia  sank  in  ruins.  Five  hundred 
years  elapsed,  and  Persia  rose  again  to  grasp 


1 66  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

at  the  sovereignty  of  Western  Asia;  and 
repelling  alike  the  Christian  faith  and  Greek 
philosophy,  she  claimed  the  East,  from  the 
.ZEgean  to  the  Indus,  for  the  ancient  and 
resuscitated  law  of  the  great  Persian  teacher. 
Sternly,  relentlessly,  she  prosecuted  the  com- 
bined work  of  conquest  and  conversion  for  four 
hundred  years;  and  then  she  fell,  to  rise  no 
more.  What  is  Persia  now  ?  We  do  not  find 
in  all  history  a  more  lamentable  contrast  than 
that  which  exists  between  the  Persia  of  Cyrus 
Darius  and  the  Persia  of  our  own  day. 

At  present  the  country  has  fallen  into  politi- 
cal insignificance,  and  gross  corruption  prevails 
universally;  and  along  with  this — as  in  the 
case  of  those  sectaries,  the  Babis — the  most 
atrocious  cruelty.  Nor  is  there  the  least 
hope  of  improvement  while  Persia  remains 
Muhammadan. 

The  Pars!  community  in  Bombay  has  recently 
been  greatly  agitated.  The  son  of  a  dis- 
tinguished Parsi  merchant  married  a  foreign 
wife — a  Frenchwoman.  He  had  her  first 
invested  with  the  sacred  shirt  and  string  that 
always  mark  the  Zoroastrian,  and  then  the 
marriage  ceremony  was  performed  according 


ZORO  ASTRI ANISM  1 67 

to  Pars!  rites.  The  lady  herself  was  anxious 
to  be  regarded  as  a  member  of  the  Zoroastrian 
community  and  join  in  their  worship.  But  a 
party  calling  itself  orthodox  objected,  main- 
taining that  Zoroastrianism  does  not  approve  of 
proselytes.  A  great  meeting  was  called  in 
order  to  consider  the  question. 

In  the  meantime  news  came  from  Europe 
that  three  young  Parsis  had  married  Christian 
wives,  and  that  a  fourth  had  married  a  Jewess. 
Great  was  the  consternation  in  Bombay.  What 
were  things  coming  to  ?  Many  meetings  were 
held,  and  the  discussions  were  often  stormy.  In 
the  end,  it  appeared  that  it  could  not  be  proved 
that  Zoroastrianism  disapproved  of  proselytism  ; 
but  no  final  decision  was  definitely  arrived  at. 
The  so-called  orthodox  party  is  certainly 
wrong  in  holding  that  Zoroastrianism  rejects 
proselytism;  and  the  marriage  of  Parsis  with 
English  and  other  foreign  ladies  is  certain  to 
go  on  increasing,  since  enterprising  Parsis  will 
continue  to  go  abroad.  Grave  consequences  to 
Zoroastrianism  are  sure  to  follow.  It  is  not 
likely  that  many  Christian  or  Jewish  women, 
if  married  to  Parsis,  will  imitate  Mrs  Tata,  and 
seek  to  become  Zoroastrians ;  their  influence 
much  more  probably  will  tend  to  draw  their 


1 68  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

husbands  away  from  the  Pars!  faith.  Un- 
doubtedly the  purest  of  Gentile  creeds  is 
Zoroastrianism ;  it  stands  nearer  to  Revealed 
truth  than  any  other.  It  seems  only  natural, 
then,  that  it  should  be  the  first  of  existing 
Gentile  systems  to  merge  in  Christianity. 


NOTE    ON    ZOROASTER 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  we  know  so 
little  about  this  celebrated  man.  We  may  well 
believe  that  the  religion  of  ancient  Iran  was 
founded  by  a  personage  who  has  generally 
been  known  by  the  name  of  Zoroaster;  but 
really  this  is  nearly  all  we  know  regarding  him. 
Professor  Williams  Jackson  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity has  done  his  best  to  dispel  the  darkness. 
He  has  laboriously  collected  the  passages  in 
the  Greek  and  Roman  classics  that  refer  to 
Zoroaster,  and  he  has  also  quoted  the  state- 
ments of  a  large  number  of  Oriental  writers. 
Yet,  after  going  over  the  whole  of  these,  we 
are  left  in  dire  perplexity.  Even  the  existence 
of  Zoroaster  cannot  be  said  to  be  more  than 
probable ;  and  the  silence  of  Herodotus  and  of 
Darius,  in  his  great  inscription,  are  difficult  to 
explain.  Contradictions  regarding  Zoroaster 


ZOROASTRI ANISM  1 69 

abound  among  both  classical  and  Oriental 
writers;  and  from  the  latter  we  seldom  get 
anything  beyond  fantastic  legends,  nor  indeed 
much  more  from  the  former. 

"Amid  all  the  dross,"  says  the  professor, 
"grains  of  gold  are  to  be  found."  That  is 
surely  probable,  but  opinions  will  differ  as  to 
the  number  of  the  grains.  The  reader  will 
judge. 

Zoroaster  was  probably  born  in  the  West 
of  Iran,  in  Media  Atropatene,  between  660 
and  533  B.C.  He  had  three  wives  at  the  same 
time,  and  had  children  by  the  first  two. 

Allusions  in  the  classics  imply  that  his  early 
youth  was  much  given  to  quiet  meditation. 

The  Zartosht  Namah  is  a  modern  book, 
but  is  very  popular  among  the  Parsis.  We 
give  a  brief  summary  of  its  statements.  At 
the  end  of  thirty  a  divine  revelation  was  im- 
parted to  him.  He  was  led  in  ecstatic  trance 
into  the  immediate  presence  of  God  and  the 
archangels.  Marvellous  things  were  shown, 
and  sublime  truths  were  revealed.  On  coming 
back  to  earth  he  began  to  preach.  Six  addi- 
tional visions  were  vouchsafed  in  the  following 
seven  or  eight  years.  He  thus  became 
possessed  of  sublime  knowledge.  But  the 


170  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

powers  of  evil  assailed  him.  Zoroaster,  how- 
ever, was  all-equipped,  having  among  other 
things  obtained  from  Aharamazda  stones  as 
big  as  a  house  to  hurl  at  the  fiends.  The 
fiends  were  discomfited. 

For  ten  years  Zoroaster  preached  before  he 
had  one  convert.  The  first  was  his  cousin. 
He  was  then  led  by  divine  guidance  apparently 
to  the  court  of  King  Vishtaspa  at  Balkh.  He 
preached,  but  in  vain.  He  had  a  terrible 
struggle  to  pass  through — lasting  it  would 
seem  two  years.  He  was  accused  of  sorcery, 
and  thrown  into  prison.  On  this  the  four  legs 
of  the  favourite  horse  of  the  king  were  found 
drawn  up  into  its  belly.  Zoroaster  promised 
to  restore  the  animal  to  its  natural  state  on 
certain  conditions.  Vishtaspa  gladly  consented 
to  the  terms.  First,  the  king  must  accept  the 
faith.  He  agreed;  whereupon  Zoroaster 
prayed,  and  the  right  foreleg  came  out. 
Secondly,  the  king  must  promise  that  his  brave 
son  Isfendiar  should  fight  on  behalf  of  the  faith. 
Agreed ;  and  then  the  right  hind  leg  appeared. 
Next,  Zoroaster  requested  the  conversion  of 
the  queen.  Agreed;  and  lo!  the  hind  leg 
came  forth.  Fourthly,  Zoroaster  demanded 
that  those  who  had  plotted  against  him  should 


ZORO  ASTRI  AN  ISM  171 

be  put  to  death.  Granted  also ;  and  then  the 
wonderful  horse  stood  as  stout  on  his  four  legs 
as  ever. 

We  pass  over  various  marvels ;  among  which 
the  king's  son  is  made  to  partake  of  a  pome- 
granate and  so  becomes  invulnerable. 

Vishtaspa  is  often  mentioned  in  Pars!  and 
Muhammadan  books.  He  was  a  zealous  sup- 
porter of  the  hitherto  struggling  faith.  The 
members  of  his  court  became  converts,  and 
the  religion  began  to  spread  over  the  whole 
region.  It  seems  certain  that  the  zealous  king 
was  intolerant,  and  advanced  the  faith  by  the 
sword.  The  Shah  Namah  speaks  of  mission- 
aries being  sent  forth  to  India,  Asia  Minor  and 
elsewhere.  Two  famous  Hindu  sages — 
Sankaracharya  and  Vyasa — seem  pointed  at  as 
converts,  as  is  also  a  Greek  philosopher  whose 
name  cannot  be  identified.  The  Dinkart  asserts 
that  there  was  a  translation  of  the  Avesta  into 
Greek.  This  is  certainly  a  mistake ;  but  as 
several  Greek  writers,  including  Plato,  were 
acquainted  with  the  Magian  doctrines,  the  mis- 
take was  not  unnatural.  We  hear  of  fire- 
temples — ten  at  least — as  having  existed  before 
Zoroaster.  One  of  his  main  employments  was 
to  found  others.  King  Vishtaspa  was  con- 


172   THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

verted  when  Zoroaster  was  forty-two  years  old. 
The  latter  did  not  die  till  he  was  seventy- 
six. 

At  least  eight  wars  were  successively  carried 
on  against  the  unbelievers.  Then  came  the 
longest  and  most  terrible  war  of  all.  Arejetaspa, 
or  Arjasp,  was  a  Turanian  king.  He  demanded 
tribute  from  Vishtaspa,  but  hatred  of  the  new 
religion  was  also  strong  in  his  heart.  By  the 
advice  of  Zoroaster,  Vishtaspa  refused  the 
demanded  tribute.  Arjasp,  in  return,  ordered 
Vishtaspa  to  renounce  the  new  faith  as  well  as 
pay  the  tax.  The  demand  was  refused,  and 
both  sides  prepared  for  war.  The  account  of 
it  may  best  be  read  in  the  great  Persian  poem 
the  Shah  Namah  in  which  it  is  detailed  with 
all  the  lavish  luxuriance  of  Oriental  imagery. 
Arjasp  was  driven  back  in  disgrace  to  his  own 
capital.  Some  years  elapsed,  and  Arjasp  re- 
turned with  a  still  mightier  army.  He  stormed 
the  city  of  Balkh;  the  sacred  fires  were 
quenched  in  the  blood  of  the  slaughtered 
priests  ;  and,  worst  of  all,  Zoroaster  was  slain. 
The  circumstances  of  his  death  are  not  ascer- 
tained; the  Western  do  not  agree  with  the 
Oriental  statements.  But  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  he  died  a  death  of  violence. 


ZOROASTRIANISM  173 

PARSlS    IN    PERSIA 

In  the  Maratha  newspaper  of  29th  April 
1904,  we  read  that  the  Parsiis  in  Persia  lately 
presented  to  Sir  Mortimer  Durand,  our  Minister 
at  the  Court  of  Persia,  an  address,  in  which 
they  speak  in  strong  language  of  the  sore 
grievances  they  have  to  bear,  and  declare 
themselves  sinking  into  despair.  They  en- 
treat his  Excellency  to  do  what  may  be  in 
his  power  for  their  relief.  The  matter  is 
delicate ;  but,  no  doubt,  Sir  Mortimer  will  do 
for  them  all  he  can. 

In  that  address  it  is  stated  that  the  ad- 
herents of  the  Zoroastrian  faith  in  Persia  still 
number  9269  persons. 


LECTURE  FOURTH 

BUDDHISM 

THE  system  of  belief  called  Buddhism  is  widely 
extended  over  Asia,  but  it  has  scarcely  affected 
any  of  the  other  three  quarters  of  the  globe. 

Extravagant  statements  have  sometimes  been 
made  regarding  the  number  of  its  professors ; 
and  when  all  the  inhabitants  of  China  are 
called  Buddhists,  we  need  not  be  surprised  if 
we  hear  of  four  hundred  millions.  But 
Buddhism  is  not  the  chief  religion  of  China ; 
and  the  entire  number  of  true  Buddhists  in 
the  world  cannot  safely  be  reckoned  as  much 
above  one  hundred  millions.  Buddhism  is 
divided  into  two  great  schools,  the  Southern 
and  the  Northern.  Professor  Rhys  Davids 
declares  that  "Northern  Buddhism  has  de- 
veloped into  a  totally  new  religion,"  and  the 
language  is  hardly  too  strong.  Or,  as  a  great 
authority  in  the  Southern  school  expresses  it, 
"The  monks  of  the  great  council  overturned 
174 


BUDDHISM  175 

religion;  they  broke  up  the  old  Scriptures 
and  made  a  new  recension." 

We  deal  at  present  with  Buddhism  as  it 
once  existed  in  a  great  part  of  India  and  still 
exists  in  Burma  and  Ceylon.  It  is  of  the 
Southern  school,  and  also  is  the  Buddhism  of 
Siam.  We  shall  have  little  occasion  to  refer 
to  the  Northern  school,  which  is  found, 
though  with  many  varieties,  in  Nepal,  Kashmir, 
Tibet,  Mongolia,  China  and  Japan. 

We  naturally  begin  by  mentioning  what  we 
know  of  the  founder  of  Buddhism.  Unhappily, 
that  is  very  little — so  little  that  critics  of  high 
name  have  doubted  whether  Buddha  was  a 
real  man — whether  he  was  not  a  "  solar  myth." 
No  history  of  him  was  written  for  several 
centuries  after  his  death,  and  by  that  time 
there  had  gathered  round  the  real  Buddha  an 
immense  mass  of  legendary  lore.  There  are  a 
hundred  fantastic  tales  to  be  met  with  in 
books  respecting  him  with  which  I  will  not 
trouble  you.  Of  Buddha  and  early  Buddhism  I 
will  mention  what  on  the  whole  appears  fairly 
credible. 

The  name  Buddha  is  a  designation ;  it  means 
"  the  enlightened  one " ;  his  real  name  may 
probably  have  been  Gotama.  He  was  the  son 


1 76  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

perhaps  of  a  petty  prince,  or  rather  a  nobleman, 
in  Northern  India.  His  birthplace  was  Kapila- 
vastu,  a  city  about  a  hundred  and  sixty  miles 
N.  of  Benares. 

In  all  probability  Buddha  was  born  about 
the  year  560  B.C.  Speculation  had  been  rife  in 
India  before  this  time,  and  among  other  things 
it  was  said  that,  when  a  man  knew  the  truth — 
or,  as  they  expressed  it,  "the  true  self" — he 
abandoned  all  desire  for  worldly  prosperity  or 
possessions  of  any  kind,  and  went  forth  as  a 
solitary  mendicant.  In  this  and  several  other 
matters  Buddha  only  gave  full  expression  to  con- 
ceptions already  existing  in  the  higher  Brahman- 
ical  mind ;  although,  as  Buddhism  developed, 
very  much  was  added  that  Brahmanism  could  not 
accept,  j  ust  as  much  was  thrown  aside  which 
Brahmanism  earnestly  clung  to. 

Buddha  was  born  at  a  time  when  the  higher 
mind  of  India  was  in  a  state  of  no  small 
agitation.  Keen  discussions  were  going  on, 
but  endless  speculation  had  led  to  endless  vari- 
ance. One  might  even  say  there  had  been  a 
general  collapse  of  the  philosophies.  Dog- 
matism there  was  in  abundance ;  hair-splitting 
in  abundance ;  but  little  more.  Many  had 
begun  to  ask,  Is  truth  attainable?  and  a 


BUDDHISM  177 

general  feeling  $f  despondency  would  seem  to 
have  prevailed  among  thinking  people.  Buddha, 
as  we  conceive  him,  was  a  practical  man,  of 
good  common  sense  and  of  great  kindness  of 
heart.  He  was  no  Brahman,  and  probably  he 
had  no  admiration  for  that  selfish,  ambitious 
caste ;  and  he  must  have  been  wearied  with 
their  speculations,  which  were  equally  endless 
and  profitless. 

Of  Buddha's  early  history  we  know  next  to 
nothing.  He  lived  in  what  is  called  a  palace, 
was  married,  and  had  a  son. 

One  would  gladly  trace — if  it  were  possible 
— the  course  of  thought  that  shaped  his 
remarkable  career.  The  chroniclers  make  it 
out  that  he  adopted  it  suddenly — induced  by 
certain  spectacles  of  much  suffering  and  sorrow. 
All  this  you  may  read,  as  it  is  told  in  a  glowing 
style  in  the  late  Sir  Edwin  Arnold's  u  Light  of 
Asia  " ;  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
historical  value  of  the  statement  is  exceedingly 
small. 

We  are  told  that  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine 
Gotama  (Buddha)  could  no  longer  rest  in  the 
enjoyment  of  his  comforts.  Wife  and  child, 
ease  and  honour,  all  failed  to  satisfy  him. 
He  felt  himself  compelled  to  "flee  from  the 


178  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

gay  world  as  from  a  glittering  serpent "  ;  he 
"preferred  the  yellow  garment  of  the  mendi- 
cant to  the  purple  robe  of  state." 

But  where  was  he  to  go?  Naturally,  as 
a  Hindu,  he  put  himself  under  Brahman  in- 
structors. He  chose  Rajagaha,  and  his  girus, 
two  learned  men  at  Rajagaha.  These  no 
doubt  inculcated  the  current  philosophy  of  the 
age,  which  very  probably  was  pantheistic. 
But  the  sacrifice  of  animals  was  also  exceed- 
ingly prevalent,  and  there  is  little  doubt  it 
would  be  earnestly  recommended.  Pantheism 
and  polytheism — both  these  great  systems  of 
thought  would  be  scrutinised  by  Buddha, 
but  in  neither  of  them  did  the  inquirer  find 
any  satisfaction.  He  is  said  to  have  remained 
under  his  two  Brahman  preceptors  for  six  years 
until,  as  we  may  presume,  they  could  teach 
him  nothing  more.  But  Buddha  remained 
dissatisfied. 

There  was,  however,  another  discipline — 
much  valued  then,  as  it  has  been  throughout 
the  centuries — that  of  asceticism,  or  self- 
inflicted  bodily  pain.  He  therefore  removed 
to  another  district;  and  there,  in  company 
with  five  others,  he  engaged  in  long  fastings 
and  severe  bodily  mortifications.  So  would 


BUDDHISM  179 

he  crush,  he  thought,  the  hateful  dominion 
of  the  body.  But  even  the  longest  and  most 
painful  inflictions  were  of  no  more  use  than 
proud  philosophy  had  been.  He  longed  for 
light,  and  all  was  darkness.  He  therefore 
gave  up  this  extreme  asceticism  and  began  to 
partake  again  of  food  like  ordinary  men,  though 
this  was  to  the  sore  disappointment  of  his 
self-torturing  companions.  He  soon  left  them 
and  retired  into  solitude.  By  this  time 
Gotama  seems  to  have  finally  parted  with 
Hinduism.  He  felt  he  must  therefore  retire 
to  think  the  matter  out.  We  do  not  know 
how  long  his  meditations  lasted.  The  Buddhist 
books  tell  us  of  the  powers  of  evil  assailing 
him,  determined  to  distract  his  mind  and 
disturb  his  meditations.  We  understand  this 
to  mean  that  thoughts  of  former  days  and  of 
wife  and  child  occurred  to  him,  and  he  half 
resolved  to  abandon  all  these  vain  attempts 
to  "  mitigate  the  fever  of  his  heart "  by  un- 
natural means,  and  to  return  to  ordinary  life. 
But  finally,  it  is  said,  the  light  dawned  upon 
him,  as  he  sat  in  deep  thought  under  a 
particular  tree  which  became  famous  as  the  Bo 
(Bodhi)  Tree,  or  the  "  tree  of  knowledge." 
Yes,  the  victory  was  now  won;  and  Gotama 


i8o  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

became  Buddha,  or  "  the  enlightened  one  " — 
the  possessor  of  the  highest  wisdom — indeed, 
the  possessor  of  all  truth.  He  had  by  himself 
discovered  the  great  secret,  the  answer  to  the 
terrible  problem — the  problem  of  ages, — 
Whence  evil,  and  why  ?  He  now  saw  into  the 
life  of  things,  the  cause  of  all  the  ills  that 
afflict  humanity,  and  also  the  means  of  com- 
pletely overcoming  them.  So  the  books 
speak;  but  probably  such  wild  language  was 
not  used  till  two  or  three  centuries  after  his 
death.  It  was  prompted  by  the  sickly  ex- 
travagance of  his  followers,  which  went  on 
increasing  for  centuries. 

When  I  come  to  mention  what  the  doctrines 
of  Buddhism  are,  you  will  ask,  Where  is  the 
evidence  of  such  supreme  enlightenment  ?  To 
us  the  fundamental  teachings  of  Buddhism 
are  only  desolating  paradoxes,  and  his  other 
doctrines  are  at  best  only  half  truths. 

And  yet,  let  us  do  Buddha  justice.  It  was 
not  a  small  thing  for  a  man  of  that  age  to 
break  with  Hinduism,  both  philosophical  and 
popular,  and  to  formulate  a  new  system  of 
thought  and  duty.  It  required  considerable 
force  of  mind. 

When    he    rejected    both    pantheism    and 


BUDDHISM  181 

polytheism,  he  easily  fell  back  into  atheism. 
That  doctrine  was  not  new.  One  system  of 
philosophy — the  Sankhya — stated  that  "the 
existence  of  God  is  not  proved";  and  it  is 
possible  that  it  may  have  in  some  degree 
influenced  Buddha,  though  it  does  not  seem 
to  have  largely  affected  his  system  of  thought 
as  a  whole. 

We  are  told  that,  after  thus  attaining 
supreme  illumination,  Buddha  remained 
wrapped  in  deep  meditation  for  twenty  eight 
days,  hardly  tasting  food  all  the  time. 

But  what  was  he  now  to  do?  Was  he 
simply  to  sit  still  in  the  quiet  enjoyment  of 
the  boundless  wisdom  which  he  now  enjoyed  ? 
No,  he  repelled  the  thought;  indeed,  he 
imagined  he  heard  a  voice  saying,  "Go  forth 
and  preach  the  truth  to  other  men."  He 
therefore  first  tried  to  find  his  two  Brahman 
teachers,  but  they  were  dead.  Next  he 
sought  out  the  five  ascetics  whom  he  had 
forsaken,  and  found  them  at  Benares,  which 
was  then,  as  now,  the  chief  seat  of  Hindu 
learning.  He  preached  there  a  sermon,  which 
the  books  are  said  to  present  exactly  as  he 
delivered  it.  One  main  thing  it  insists  on  is 
the  necessity  of  avoiding,  on  the  one  hand, 


1 82  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

sensual  enjoyment,  and  on  the  other  excessive 
bodily  mortification.  It  very  earnestly  dwells 
also  on  the  universal  prevalence  of  suffering, 
and  the  necessity  of  renouncing  the  world, 
including  all  family  ties.  The  ascetics,  it  is 
said,  were  convinced,  and  all  became  monks. 
Ere  long,  others  joined  them  till  there  were 
sixty  followers.  These  Buddha  sent  forth  to 
proclaim  the  new  doctrine.  Each  was  to  go  a 
separate  way,  and  he  himself  followed  their 
example. 

Here  was  a  truly  remarkable  thing: 
Buddhism  was  from  the  outset  a  missionary 
system.  And  this  was  something  entirely  new 
— this  proclamation  of  supposed  truth  to  all 
ranks  and  conditions  of  men.  Hinduism  knew 
nothing  of  it. 

How  came  this  grand  conception  into 
Buddha's  mind?  It  probably  arose  from  his 
tender  heart — from  what,  if  we  may  ascribe 
passion  to  Buddha,  we  may  call  his  passionate 
philanthropy. 

Thereafter  Buddha,  during  the  dry  season 
— eight  months  a  year — moved  from  place  to 
place.  He  seems  to  have  traversed — almost 
always  on  foot — a  region  300  miles  long  and 
100  broad.  He  preached  in  the  language  of 


BUDDHISM  183 

the  people — not  in  the  difficult  language  of 
the  Brahmans. 

In  this  work  Buddha  persevered  up  to  his 
death.  Surely,  a  touching  spectacle!  The 
high-minded,  sorely  bewildered  man,  preaching 
that  dismal  message  of  "  No  God,"  for  five 
and  forty  years ! 

Even  so  passes  finally  from  view  what  I  take 
leave  to  call,  although  I  do  not  see  that  he 
was  a  gloomy  man — the  most  pathetic  figure 
in  all  Indian  history. 

So  far  we  have  been  dealing  with  the  real 
or  supposed  facts  of  Buddha's  life;  I  must 
now  give  some  account  of  his  teaching ;  and  as 
I  prepare  to  do  so,  there  spreads  out  before 
me  the  immeasurable  ocean  of  Buddhist  meta- 
physical speculation.  To  render  the  doctrine 
intelligible  is  extremely  difficult;  to  make  it 
interesting  is,  I  fear,  impossible. 

A  fundamental  part  of  the  system  lay  in 
what  are  called  the  four  noble  truths.  These 
are: — 

1.  All  existence  involves  suffering. 

2.  Suffering  arises  from  desire. 

3.  Suffering  ceases  when  desire  ceases. 

4.  There   is   a   way   to   the    extinction   of 
desire. 


1 84  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

This  way  is  the  so-called  "  noble  eightfold 
path,"  which  may  be  stated  briefly  thus  : — 

1.  Right  belief. 

2.  Right  aspirations. 

3.  Right  speech. 

4.  Right  conduct. 

5.  Right  living. 

6.  Right  effort. 

7.  Right  thought. 

8.  Right   self-concentration,    or   rapture  in 
meditation. 

Of  course,  when  "  right  belief"  is  spoken 
of,  the  meaning  is  belief,  in  accordance  with 
Buddha's  teaching. 

There  is  frequent  reference  in  Buddhist 
books  to  the  "ten  fetters,"  which  must  be 
broken  by  those  who  travel  on  the  noble 
eight-fold  path. 

The  first  is  the  delusive  belief  of  a  Self. 
He  must  learn  not  to  think  This  is  I  or  This  is 
Mine. 

The  second  fetter  to  be  broken  is  the  fetter 
of  doubt.  Doubt  is  said  to  have  eight  forms 
— doubt  of  the  teacher,  doubt  of  his  teaching, 
doubt  of  the  order,  and  so  on. 

The  third  fetter  is  belief  in  the  efficacy  of 


BUDDHISM  185 

good  works  and  ceremonies,  as  practised  by 
the  Brahmans  in  Buddha's  days. 

The  fourth  fetter  is  Kama — evil  desire, 
especially  bodily  desire. 

The  fifth  fetter  is  ill-will. 

The  sixth  is  desire  to  live  on  earth. 

The  seventh  is  desire  for  a  future  life  in 
heaven. 

The  eighth  is  pride. 

The  ninth  is  self-righteousness. 

The  tenth  is  ignorance. 

He  who  has  travelled  the  noble  eightfold 
path  and  has  broken  the  ten  fetters  has 
entered  on  immeasurable  peace — the  life  of 
the  Arahat.  This  is  a  form  of  Nirwana 
which  is  attainable  on  earth.  It  is  not 
conscious  existence ;  nor  is  it  unconscious 
existence. 

Buddha  never  spoke  of  God.  He  believed 
in  gods,  like  other  Hindus — gods  who  were 
imperfect  and  transitory  beings ;  but  he  never 
spoke  of  a  Creator,  Preserver,  Ruler,  or  Judge. 
He  thought  he  could  construct  a  theory  of  the 
universe  without  reference  to  any  such  Being. 
He  saw  no  need,  no  place,  for  God. 

It  would  be  very  interesting  if  we  could 
trace  the  process  of  thought  by  which  he 


1 86   THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

arrived  at  this  terrible  conclusion.  I  do  not 
find  that  process  stated  anywhere ;  but  we 
have  reason  to  think  that  it  was  through  no 
abstract,  metaphysical  speculation  that  he 
became  an  Atheist,  or  at  least  an  Agnostic. 
It  seems  to  have  been  all  ultimately  traceable 
to  his  excessive,  indeed  morbid,  sensibility. 
Every  form  of  suffering  that  Buddha  witnesssed 
gave  him  torture.  And  yet  suffering  was  all 
around — no  living  being,  man  or  beast,  could 
possibly  escape  it.  Of  all  conceivable  worlds 
this  world  seemed  to  him  to  be  the  worst. 
His  creed  was  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  pessimism. 

The  people  around  him  believed  in  gods  or 
spirits  who  were  all  jealous,  capricious  beings, 
ready  to  visit  with  terrible  chastisement  any 
want  of  respect  to  themselves.  All  of  these 
beings  were  morally  offensive  to  Buddha. 
He  wished  they  did  not  exist :  he  could  not 
believe  they  existed. 

Nor  did  Brahma — the  god  of  the  philo- 
sophers— satisfy  him.  He — or  rather  // — 
was  a  distant,  dim  abstraction,  without  even 
personality. 

Suffering,  Buddha  thought,  must  be  the 
result  of  evil.  But  even  innocent  children 
suffer,  and  in  many  cases  die.  Why,  why? 


BUDDHISM  187 

The  problem  became  only  the  more  perplexing 
the  longer  he  pondered  it. 

The  great  conception  of  suffering  as  disci- 
pline, never  once  occurred  to  Buddha.  Suffer- 
ing, he  thought,  was  always  chastisement — due 
chastisement. 

This  brings  us  to  speak  of  Buddha's  doctrine 
regarding  man.  We  think  of  soul  and  body 
as  united,  but  as  perfectly  capable  of  existing 
apart  from  each  other.  We  think  of  soul  as 
immortal.  Not  so  thought  Buddha.  He  held 
that  man  is  composed  of  various  elements. 
These  are  generally  said  to  be  five  in  number 
— earth,  water,  fire,  air  and  ether,  with  a  sixth, 
viz.  consciousness.  All  these  elements  are 
dissolved  at  death;  and  then  the  man  exists 
no  longer.  But  a  new  set  of  elements  at  once 
starts  into  existence,  consciousness  among  them, 
and  a  new  man  is  produced.  The  man  A  has 
an  exact  equivalent  in  the  man  B;  and  the 
merit  or  demerit  of  A  is  transferred  to  B. 
This,  of  course,  is  flagrantly  unjust.  But  it  is 
evident  that  Buddha  had  a  fixed  determination 
to  maintain  the  great  doctrine  of  Moral  Re- 
tribution. Good  must  be  rewarded  ;  evil  must 
be  punished ;  and  this  could  be  only  in  this 
extraordinary  way — making  B  answerable  for 


1 88  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

the  conduct  of  A,  although  the  two  individuals 
had  not  the  slightest  connection.  Buddha 
thought  he  had  solved  the  problem  by  saying 
that  A  had  consciousness,  and  so  had  B, — 
although  the  consciousness  of  A  was  not  the 
consciousness  of  B. 

This  leads  us  to  the  remarkable  doctrine 
regarding  Karma.  Karma  literally  means 
work,  conduct ;  but  we  may  translate  it  char- 
acter. It  is  held  that  every  good  work  has 
merit,  and  is  inevitably  rewarded,  and  every 
bad  work  is  inevitably  punished.  But  the 
award  may  be  either  speedy  or  long  delayed. 
Sometimes  it  comes  during  the  life  in  which 
the  work  is  performed;  sometimes  in  the  life 
following;  sometimes  generations,  or  perhaps 
ages,  afterwards. 

This  is  the  form  which  the  great  doctrine  of 
Transmigration  assumes  in  Buddhism.  There 
can  of  course  be  no  real  transmigration,  since 
there  is  no  soul  to  transmigrate.  The  soul, 
according  to  the  Hindus,  escapes  from  the 
body,  like  a  bird  escaping  from  its  cage. 
According  to  the  Buddhists  there  is  no  bird 
to  escape. 

And  yet,  it  is  truly  remarkable  that  the 
Buddhists  systematically  speak  as  if  the  same 


BUDDHISM  189 

individual  existed  through  successive  births 
and  as  if  the  B  we  spoke  of  were  really  A. 
We  can  hardly  believe  that  such  reasoning  as 
we  have  mentioned  satisfied  either  Buddha 
himself  or  his  followers.  But  without  it,  his 
whole  system  of  thought  falls  at  once  into 
ruins. 

In  the  "Questions  of  Milinda"  the  query 
of  the  identity  of  the  being  in  the  successive 
existences  is  taken  up.  The  saint  Nagasena 
affirms  that  it  is  not  the  same  being  and  yet 
not  a  different  being.  Milinda  asks  him  to 
explain.  Nagasena  replies  that  if  you  kindle 
a  light  it  will  go  on  burning  through  the  night ; 
but  it  is  neither  the  same  flame  at  the 
beginning  and  end,  nor  is  it  a  different  flame. 
It  would  seem  that  this  passed  as  an  intelligible 
and  satisfactory  statement. 

In  this  sense  Buddha  himself  had  been 
frequently  reborn  at  least  400  times.  He  had 
been  almost  everything  in  succession — a  king, 
a  lion,  a  cock,  a  pig,  a  thief — almost  every- 
thing except  a  woman. 

Salvation,  according  to  the  Buddhists,  con- 
sists in  Nirvana.  The  word  probably  means 
the  state  of  a  light  blown  out.  But  does  it 
imply  only  that  all  passion  is  extinguished,  or 


190  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

all  existence  ?  There  is  also  parlnlrvana — a 
condition  beyond  nirvana ;  and  logically  we 
seem  compelled  to  say  regarding  this,  with 
Professor  Childers,  that  "annihilation  is  the 
goal  of  Buddhism."  Yet  it  is  remarkable  that 
Buddha  himself  repeatedly  refused  to  pronounce 
any  decision  on  the  question.  The  reason  he 
assigned  for  his  reticence  was  singular ;  what- 
ever answer  he  might  give,  wrong  inferences, 
he  said,  would  be  drawn  from  his  words. 
Many  things,  spoken  apparently  without 
hesitation  by  Buddha,  are  liable  to  the  same 
objection ;  and  the  reason  so  given  can  hardly 
have  been  the  true  one.  May  we  not  believe 
that,  while  his  reasoning  all  tended  to  the  doc- 
trine of  extinction  of  being,  his  soul  shrank  from 
the  awful  thought  ?  Let  me,  however,  mention 
that,  on  the  question  of  the  meaning  of 
Nirvana,  great  authorities  are  ranged  on 
opposite  sides;  and  it  seems  well,  on  the 
whole,  to  follow  Buddha's  example  and  decline 
to  pronounce  decidedly. 

An  interesting  question  is,  How  did  Buddha 
deal  with  Caste  ?  Caste  in  Hinduism  is  of 
infinite  importance;  it  has  been  called  the 
body  and  soul  of  Hinduism.  So  far  as  we  can 
see,  Buddha  did  not  directly  attack  it,  he  did 


BUDDHISM  191 

not  in  words  oppose  it ;  but  he  ignored  it.  "  My 
law,"  said  he,  "is  a  law  of  grace  for  all." 
Rich  and  poor,  high  and  low,  all  were 
received  as  brethren.  Among  the  middle  and 
lower  castes  this  doubtless  tended  greatly  to 
the  popularity  of  his  system. 

But  it  is  time  to  speak  of  Buddhist 
morality. 

Buddha  himself,  we  have  every  reason  to 
think,  was  a  man  of  pure  life  ;  and  the  moral 
precepts  he  laid  down  were  unexceptionable — 
in  fact,  wonderfully  like  those  of  the  second 
table  of  the  decalogue. 

Killing,  stealing,  adultery,  lying  and  in- 
toxication— all  these  things  were  forbidden. 
And  yet  probably  even  as  Buddha  himself  gave 
them,  these  commandments  ran  to  extremes. 
Thus,  when  killing  is  forbidden,  the  meaning 
is  that  all  life  is  sacred,  and  that  no  living 
creature — not  the  most  savage  beast,  or  the 
most  noxious  serpent  or  insect — must  be  de- 
prived of  life.  And  so,  when  intoxication  is 
forbidden,  the  meaning  is  that  to  taste  a  drop 
of  anything  that  intoxicates  is  a  deadly  sin. 

By  and  by  other  prohibitions  were  added 
in  the  case  of  the  monks ;  though  they  were 


192  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

not  held  absolutely  binding  in  regard  to  the 
lay  brethren  (if  that  term  may  be  used). 

1.  Not  to  eat  after  noon. 

2.  To  abstain  from  public  shows,  as  stage 
plays,  etc. 

3.  To  abstain  from  expensive  dress,  perfumes, 
etc. 

4.  To  abstain  from  luxurious  couches. 

5.  Not  to  receive  gold  or  silver. 

There  were  still  higher  restrictions  for  those 
whose  hearts  were  set  on  attaining  perfection. 
They  must  dress  in  rags,  live  only  by  begging, 
eat  only  once  a  day,  live  chiefly  in  forests, 
sheltered  only  by  trees,  often  dwelling  in  tombs, 
and  they  must  never  lie  down  to  sleep. 

It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  the  man  who 
in  earlier  days,  as  we  have  seen,  rejected 
asceticism,  could  impose  such  rules;  they 
very  probably  came  in  only  after  Buddha's 
death. 

We  sometimes  read  of  Buddhist  priests. 
But  the  term  priest  is  not  suitable.  He 
formed  his  disciples  into  fraternities  of  monks 
all  living  together.  There  was  no  trace  of 
sacerdotalism  in  his  system.  The  monks 
would  give  instruction  out  of  the  sacred  books 
to  any  who  desired  it ;  but  there  was  no  fixed 


BUDDHISM  193 

time  of  meeting  for  worship.  Properly  speaking, 
indeed,  there  was  no  worship ;  and  I  believe 
Buddhism  is  the  only  so-called  religion  in 
which  there  is  no  prayer.  The  nearest 
approach  to  prayer  is  the  threefold  formula : — 

I  seek  refuge  in  Buddha, 

I  seek  refuge  in  the  Law, 

I  seek  refuge  in  the  Order. 
The  monks  then  were  not  clergy.  They 
exercised  no  spiritual  superintendence  over  the 
community.  Their  great  duty  was  to  meditate. 
Every  morning  they  went  forth  with  their 
almsbowls,  always  clad  in  yellow  garments. 
They  must  receive  whatever  alms  might  be 
given.  The  monks  could  indeed  return  to  the 
world  if  they  chose.  But  to  abandon  the' 
monastic  life  was  regarded  as  an  immense  fall, 
and  a  forfeiture  of  all  hope  of  salvation. 

No  idea  in  Buddhism  is  more  prominent 
than  this — that  the  great  thing  to  be  acquired 
is  merit;  and  the  great  means  of  acquiring 
merit  is  almsgiving  to  the  monks. 

Not  at  first,  but  after  a  considerable  time, 
an  order  of  nuns  was  also  instituted.  It  is 
clear  that  Buddha  hesitated  about  this  step. 
But  considering  the  position  held  by  women  in 
India  (though  it  was  by  no  means  then  so  low 

N 


i94  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

as  it  afterwards  became)  the  institution  of  the 
sisterhood  of  nuns  was,  on  the  whole,  beneficial. 
Moreover,  rich  women  were  liberal  in  their 
gifts  to  Buddha  and  his  followers.  Women 
have  considerably  higher  respect  shown  them 
in  Buddhist  than  in  Hindu  communities.  Thus, 
in  Burma  and  Ceylon  they  move  about  with 
much  greater  freedom  than  is  possible  in  India 
proper.  At  the  same  time,  the  nuns  were  kept 
in  strict  subjection  to  the  monks ;  there  were 
no  lady-abbesses  permitted. 

It  is  evident  that,  even  from  the  outset, 
Buddha  attracted  numbers  of  disciples.  We 
can  understand  how  the  appearance,  as  a  public 
teacher,  of  a  man  of  rank — probably  a  noble- 
man— should  have  drawn  disciples  from  among 
the  middle  and  lower  classes  ;  there  must  have 
been  a  reaction  against  Brahmanical  sway. 
Yet  he  had  also  not  a  few  Brahman  followers. 
What  drew  the  people  to  him  ? 

There  seems  nothing  to  attract  but  every- 
thing to  repel,  in  the  terrible  negations  Buddha 
inculcated.  The  attraction  was  mainly  in  the 
man  himself — his  gentleness  and  overflowing 
sympathy.  And  his  memory  continued  to  draw 
disciples  after  his  death. 

But   by   and  by,   other   causes    powerfully 


BUDDHISM  195 

helped  in  the  diffusion  of  Buddhism.  A  great 
revolution  took  place  in  India.  Chandragupta 
—the  Sandracottus  of  the  Greek  writers — a 
man  of  low  origin,  usurped  the  throne  of 
Magadha  (Behar)  and  extended  his  sway  over 
all  Northern  India.  The  Brahmans  would 
bitterly  oppose  him,  on  account  of  his  caste; 
and  this  would  make  him  look  with  favour 
upon  the  rival  system  of  Buddhism.  His 
grandson  As"oka,  was  a  truly  distinguished  man 
— all  things  considered,  as  remarkable  a  ruler 
as  India  ever  possessed.  During  his  reign  a 
third  Buddhist  Council  was  held ;  and  a  very 
important  resolution  was  passed,  viz.  to  ex- 
tend Buddhism  by  sending  missionaries  forth 
to  preach  it.  Asoka  also  issued  edicts  which 
were  inscribed  on  rocks  and  pillars ;  and  these 
we  still  find  scattered  over  Northern  India,  from 
the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and 
from  the  Himalayas  to  the  Vindhya  mountains. 
There  are  thirty-six  inscriptions,  and  they  are 
the  oldest  inscriptions  known  in  India. 

Asoka  had  been  a  great  warrior;  and  in 
some  of  these  inscriptions  he  expresses  great 
regret  on  account  of  the  blood-shedding  he 
had  occasioned.  He  now  prohibits  all  murder 
of  men  and  all  slaughter  of  animals,  whether 


196  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

for  sacrifice  or  food.  He  inculcates  kindness 
and  self-denial,  and  commands  that  every  five 
years  there  shall  be  a  great  national  confession 
of  sin,  /'.*.,  of  the  violation  of  Buddhist  precepts. 

All  this  is  striking  enough ;  but  there  is 
something  more  remarkable  still.  The  son 
and  daughter  of  the  Emperor,  it  is  said, 
went  as  missionaries  to  Ceylon ;  and  there  as 
missionaries  they  lived  and  died.1  If  this  is 
true,  I  ask — is  there  in  all  history  a  more 
touching  spectacle  ?  It  has  a  great  lesson  for 
Christians  ;  may  we  lay  that  lesson  to  heart ! 

In  addition  to  the  two  great  influences  of 
Buddha's  personality  and  the  zeal  of  ASoka, 
there  were  several  others  which  contributed  to 
the  spread  of  the  new  religion.  One  of  these 
was  the  political  state  of  India. 

All  foreign  invaders  were  objects  of  ab- 
horrence to  the  Brahmans.  The  Persians  must 
have  been  so ;  and  when  the  Macedonians 
followed,  even  Alexander  the  Great  was  to 
them  only  an  unclean  barbarian.  They  strove 
to  rouse  the  people  against  him;  and  Alexander 
retaliated  with  severity. 

1  How  much,  or  how  little,  truth  the  tradition  contains, 
cannot  at  present  be  determined  with  certainty. — Professor 
Oldenberg. 


BUDDHISM  197 

Afterwards  there  came  into  Northern  India 
a  succession  of  foreign  invaders  —  Greco- 
Bactrians,  Parthians  and  Scythians.  All  these 
were  for  many  reasons  vehemently  disliked  by 
the  high-caste  Hindus.  Now  the  Buddhists 
had  no  such  feeling,  for  they  had  no  caste. 
They  were  eager  to  proselytise  the  invaders  ; 
and  they  were  largely  successful.  Thus  the 
invaders  and  the  Buddhists  soon  understood 
each  other  and  were  mutually  helpful. 

We  do  not  suppose  that  Asoka  would  per- 
secute; but  the  imperial  patronage,  as  we 
have  said,  would  mightily  advance  the  cause 
of  Buddhism.  The  monarch  himself  speaks  of 
his  own  religious  uzeal";  and  the  word  pro- 
bably implies  a  good  deal. 

Another  thing  must  have  had  an  influence  ; 
the  Buddhists  became  great  temple-builders. 
They  paid  attention,  also,  to  the  art  of  painting; 
and  both  their  cave-temples  and  the  edifices 
they  reared — long  before  the  Brahmans  had 
done  anything  of  the  kind — must  have  exercised 
no  inconsiderable  influence  both  on  Hindus  and 
foreigners. 

As  Buddhism  spread  more  and  more  it 
effected  very  great  changes  in  India.  One  of 
these  was  the  effect  on  animal  sacrifice.  The 


198  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

land  had  been  swimming  in  blood — the  blood 
of  sacrificed  animals, — but  wherever  Buddhism 
was  powerful  these  sacrifices  ceased.  No 
doubt  they  continued  in  many  places — both 
as  a  part  of  accredited  Hinduism  and  as  a 
remnant  of  the  aboriginal  worship. 

Another  great  change  was  the  cessation  of 
the  Soma  offering.  The  intoxicating  draught 
was  no  longer  offered  to  the  gods,  nor  was  it 
drunk  by  the  priests.  In  fact,  by  Hindus  as 
well  as  Buddhists  intoxication  now  came  to  be 
regarded  as  a  heinous  sin. 

And  yet  Buddhism,  though  once  so  power- 
ful in  India,  ere  long  faded  away.  It  was  not 
killed ;  it  died.  Local  outbreaks  against  it 
there  seem  to  have  been  here  and  there,  but 
no  general  persecution  can  be  traced.  Why 
did  it  pass  away  ? 

One  cause  of  this  was  the  intellectual  superi- 
ority of  its  opponents.  Culture  was  with  the 
Brahmans.  The  Buddhists  were  generally 
ignorant  men  ; l  and  in  the  frequent  discussions 
which  arose,  they  were  doubtless  almost  always 
beaten  in  argument. 

1  A  judicious  critic  (Barth)  calls  the  Buddhist  style 
"frightful,  the  most  detestable  of  all  styles." 


BUDDHISM  199 

Moreover,  the  Brahmans  recast  their  system, 
indeed,  could  not  help  recasting  it.  Hinduism 
assumed  a  form  very  different  from  its  earlier 
one.  The  Brahman  controversialists  were  as  un- 
scrupulous as  they  were  skilful.  As  a  set-off 
against  Buddha's  tender  humanity,  which  was 
so  attractive,  they  introduced  Rama  and 
Krishna,  as  incarnations  of  the  great  god 
Vishnu, — Rama,  a  gallant  warrior,  and  Krishna, 
the  shepherd  of  Vrindavan,  sporting  with  the 
shepherdesses.  In  pourtraying  the  latter  the 
Brahmans  appealed  to  the  lower  passions  of 
our  nature;  and  soon  the  moral  Buddha  was 
displaced  by  the  immoral  Krishna.  The  wily 
Brahmans  must  have  known  that  they  were 
outraging  all  propriety ;  but  what  mattered 
that?  Their  object  was  to  repel  intrusive 
Buddhism,  whether  by  fair  means  or  foul. 
And  there  was  something  still  worse.  One  of 
the  incarnations  was  Buddha;  Vishnu  had 
descended  from  heaven  and  become  Buddha ; 
but  for  what  purpose?  As  I  have  said  in 
another  Lecture,  the  god  had  descended 
to  teach  men  error,  and  so  lead  them  to 
destruction !  I  need  hardly  characterise  this 
sentiment ;  it  is  the  most  dreadful  thing  that  I 
know  even  in  Hinduism. 


200  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Although  the  accessions  to  Buddhism  were 
very  numerous  in  consequence  of  the  patronage 
of  the  Emperor,  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that 
there  were  many  real  converts.  There  was 
nothing  attractive  in  Buddha's  teaching.  No 
Supreme  Being,  no  soul,  no  future  life ;  these 
are  dreadful  paradoxes,  fitted  to  repel  rather 
than  attract;  and  probably  they  were  only 
half  believed  at  best.  We  need  not  wonder 
then  that  Hinduism — with  some  of  its  worst 
features  removed — was  able  to  rally  and  to 
regain  its  former  sway. 

Although  Buddhism  no  longer  exists  in 
India  proper,  it  has  not  disappeared  from  the 
surrounding  countries  into  which  the  zeal  of 
the  early  Buddhists  carried  it.  Yes,  the  name 
survives ;  but  the  spirit  of  Buddhism  has  greatly 
changed,  so  that  it  has  become,  as  some  critics 
have  said,  actually  "  a  new  religion." 

Regarding  this  far-extended  Buddhism  and 
its  results,  one  is  reminded  of  an  opinion  of 
Chevalier  Bunsen's.  He  said  it  appeared  like  a 
dose  of  laudanum  administered  to  the  wilder 
races  of  Asia,  in  order  to  keep  them  quiet  till 
the  time  was  come  to  embrace  Christianity. 
The  thought  is  striking.  Let  us  remember 
that,  when  the  Turks  issued  from  their  fast- 


BUDDHISM  201 

nesses  in  High  Asia,  they  came  in  contact  not 
with  Buddhists  but  Muhammadans  and  em- 
braced the  religion  of  the  Quran ;  and  thus 
their  natural  ferocity  was  only  rendered  more 
intense  in  their  dealing  with  men  of  other 
religions.  Had  they  become  Buddhists,  the 
long  and  fearful  record  of  wars  and  oppressions 
of  which  their  history  chiefly  consists,  could 
never  have  been  written ;  and  unspeakable 
suffering  would  have  been  spared  both  to  Asia 
and  to  Europe. 

Thus  it  exists  in  Nepal ;  but  the  Buddhists 
there  believe  in  an  Adi-Buddha  (literally, 
primal  Buddha),  who  is  a  real  deity,  possessed 
at  least  of  some  divine  attributes.  In  China  it 
is  mixed  with  Confucianism  and  Taoism,  and 
overflows  with  magic  and  superstition  of  every 
kind. 

It  has  assumed  many  forms  in  Japan. 
Among  these  none  seems  to  me  so  interesting 
as  the  Sin  shia  sect.  A  Buddhist  professor 
in  a  great  college  there  assured  me  that  the 
ideas  of  this  division — particularly  regarding 
Amida  Buddha  (literally,  the  infinite  Buddha), 
— could  hardly  be  distinguished  from  our 
Christian  conceptions  regarding  God.  Un- 
doubtedly Christianity  is  telling  with  greater 


202  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

and  greater  power  on  the  mind  of  Japan. 
The  number  of  Christians  among  military  and 
naval  officers,  members  of  parliament,  and 
gentlemen  connected  with  the  press,  is  great 
and  increasing.  The  latest  missionary  report 
we  have  seen — that  of  the  American  Board — 
speaks  thus :  "  There  is  much  inquiry  on  the 
part  of  students  throughout  the  empire,  and 
a  much  more  friendly  and  cordial  feeling 
towards  Christianity  as  a  religion.  Many 
leading  Japanese  who  make  no  profession  of 
Christianity  have  publicly  declared  their  belief 
that  Christianity  offers  to  Japan  that  which  it 
most  needs  in  the  way  of  training  for  her 
people.  The  influence  of  Christianity  is 
deepening  and  strengthening."  l 

At  the  present  moment  it  looks  as  if  the 
first  of  heathen  lands  to  enter — as  a  nation — 
the  fold  of  Christ  would  be  the  empire  of  the 
Rising  Sun — Japan. 

The  most  singular  form  that  extra-Indian 
Buddhism  has  assumed  is  seen  in  Tibet  and 
Mongolia.  This  is  generally  called  Lamaism. 
It  would  require  for  its  description  a  volume 
instead  of  the  few  sentences  to  which  we  must 
restrict  ourselves. 

i  Report,  pp.  4,  125. 


BUDDHISM  203 

Among  the  many  peculiarities  of  Lamaism 
none  is  more  striking  than  the  mode  of  praying 
— or  rather,  what  they  call  praying.  There 
are  six  syllables  which  the  people  take  to  a 
prayer — Om  mani padme  hum.1  This  is  certainly 
no  invocation.  These  six  syllables,  uttered 
with  great  rapidity  and  endlessly  repeated,  are 
in  every  mouth.  They  are  also  inscribed 
on  paper  and  enclosed  in  cylinders  which  can 
revolve.  Thousands,  or,  it  is  said,  even  millions 
of  times  these  words  may  be  inscribed  ;  and 
every  revolution  of  the  cylinder  is  equal  to  an 
oral  repetition  of  the  words.  Surely,  a  most 
notable  instance  of  prayer  by  machinery.  A 
twirl — and  the  thing  is  done.  Nobody  knows 
the  meaning  of  those  syllables  ;  but  that  is  of 
no  consequence.  They  form  a  magic  spell — 
an  incantation.  For  a  moment  the  ludicrous 
aspect  of  the  so-called  prayer  by  clockwork  is 
almost  too  much  for  our  gravity.  Yet  a  feeling 
of  deep  sorrow  soon  rushes  in.  We  hardly 
know  whether  the  sorrow  will  be  lessened  or 
increased  when  we  are  told  by  the  well-known 
French  missionaries,  Hue  and  Gabet,  of  what 
they  witnessed  at  Lhassa.  They  say :  "  There 
is  a  very  touching  custom  at  Lhassa.  In  the 
1  Literally — Om,  the  jewel  in  the  lotus, — Hum. 


104  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

evening  all  the  Tibetans — men,  women,  and 
children — meet  in  the  principal  parts  of  the  town 
All  kneel  down  and  chaunt  their  prayers.  These 
religious  meetings  produce  a  solemn  harmony 
which  powerfully  affects  the  mind.  The  first 
time  we  witnessed  the  spectacle  we  could  not 
help  drawing  a  painful  comparison  between 
this  heathen  town  and  the  cities  of  Europe, 
where  people  would  blush  to  make  the  sign 
of  the  Cross  in  public." 

So  then,  these  poor  Buddhists,  who  do  not 
believe  in  God  do  yet  believe  in  what  they  call 
prayer.  They  feel  the  necessity  of  it,  and 
they  try  to  pray.  The  heart  then  has  a  sense 
of  need,  it  seems  to  be  "feeling  after  God" — 
darkly  groping  we  may  say. 

Hitherto  Tibet  has  striven — and  striven 
successfully — to  exclude  Christian  teaching. 
Let  us  pray  that  the  closed  door  may  be 
opened,  and  that  the  people  may  soon  learn  what 
true  prayer  is — even  the  rising  of  the  heart  to 
a  Living  God. 

JAINISM 

Although  Buddhism  does  not  now  exist  in 
India  proper — and  has  not  done  so  for  about 
800  years — there  is  still  there  a  system  closely 


BUDDHISM  205 

allied  to  it,  called  Jainism.  The  doctrines  of 
the  two  religions  are  nearly  the  same ;  but  the 
Jaina  lays  still  more  stress  than  Buddhism  on 
the  sacredness  of  all  life.  A  fundamental 
maxim  is  this ;  Not  to  kill  is  to  be  supremely 
religious.  Beast  or  bird — the  most  noxious 
insect — all  must  remain  uninjured.  The  Jains 
are  about  one  and  a  half  million  in  number ; 
but  the  community  apparently  is  not  increasing. 
They  are  divided  into  two  great  sections — the 
white-vested  and  the  sky-vested.  The  latter 
seem  to  correspond  to  the  "  Gymnosophists  "- 
the  naked  philosophers  of  whom  the  Greeks 
have  written.  But  in  modern  days  they  appear 
to  lay  aside  their  garments  only  when  taking 
food.  The  separation  between  the  two  sections 
may  have  occurred  about  the  first  Christian 
century.  The  sections  neither  intermarry,  nor 
eat  together. 

The  word  Jina,  from  which  the  sect  derives  its 
name,  means  conqueror.  It  is  the  designation  of 
Rishabha,  the  author  of  the  system  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  many  millions  of  years  ago. 
His  followers  are  called  Arahat  or  holy  ones. 

The  Jains  are  met  with  in  many  Indian 
towns — especially  in  the  Panjab,  Rajputana, 
Gujarat,  and  Kanara. 


206  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

The  Jains  are  generally  fairly  wealthy. 
They  are  almost  always  engaged  in  commerce. 
They  shun  agriculture  since  turning  up  the 
soil  is  hurtful  to  many  living  creatures.  Plants 
also  have  life  and  must  not  be  deprived  of  it. 

One  truly  remarkable  characteristic  of  Jainism 
is  its  universality :  it  invites  all  men  to  adopt 
it,  and  even  the  lowest  are  welcome. 

It  was  at  first  intended  for  ascetics  only; 
but  laymen  could  listen  to  the  doctrine  and  to 
some  extent  obey  it. 

The  asceticism  recommended  is  inward  as 
well  as  outward.  Self-discipline  and  the  puri- 
fication of  the  mind  are  much  insisted  on. 
Repentance  for  evil  done,  confession  to  a  teacher 
and  humility — especially  before  all  who  held  to 
be  holy  men :  these  things  are  also  necessary, 
and  the  true  Jain,  it  is  believed,  sometimes 
rises  to  a  high  moral  character. 

Of  course  the  external  asceticism  runs  into 
sad  extravagance — such  as  begging,  giving  up 
savoury  food,  sitting  in  uneasy  postures,  fasting 
often  carried  to  starvation :  these  teachers  are 
highly  valued.  Indeed  the  perfect  man — accord- 
ing to  the  sky-clothed  Jaina — must  not  eat — he 
ought  to  die.  The  Jaina,  on  entering  the 
order  of  monks,  must  give  up  all  his  possessions 


BUDDHISM  207 

and  wander  without  a  home,  with  his  alms- 
dish  in  his  hand,  never  staying,  if  possible, 
more  than  a  night  in  one  place.  He  must 
carry  a  straining  cloth  for  the  water  he  drinks, 
a  broom,  and  a  veil  before  his  mouth,  to  avoid 
killing  insects.  He  must  rest  during  the  rainy 
season,  as  animal  and  plant  life  are  then 
specially  abundant  and  vulnerable.  He  must 
pluck  out  all  his  hair.  And  he  ought  not  to 
wash  his  body. 

The  Jain  monk,  left  to  himself,  would  have 
tried  "  to  suppress  the  natural  desire  of  man  to 
worship."  But  the  laity  felt  the  need;  and  a 
kind  of  worship  was  introduced  consisting  of 
the  offering  of  flowers  and  incense  to  the 
founder  of  Jainism,  accompanied  by  hymns. 
The  founder  actually  became  a  kind  of  deity — 
which  was  certainly  an  immense  departure  from 
the  original  tenet.  Then  monuments  and 
temples  came  to  be  reared ;  and,  as  has  been 
elsewhere  mentioned,  the  most  exquisite  temples 
in  India  are  those  on  Mount  Abu  in  Rajputana. 

Literary  and  scientific  activity  became  also 
prominent.  They  wrote  books  on  Prakrit, 
the  language  of  the  people,  but  they  also 
studied  Sanskrit  to  enable  them  to  contend 
with  the  Brahmans.  They  developed  the 


208  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

vernacular     tongues     Kanarese,     Tamil     and 
Telugu.1 

The  former  class — the  white-vested — held 
a  great  Conference  two  years  ago  in  Rajputana ; 
and  last  year  another  in  Bombay.  About  5000 
Jains — including,  be  it  observed,  200  females — 
attended  the  meetings,  which  lasted  for  several 
days  and  were  full  of  animation.  Papers  were 
read  and  resolutions  passed.  It  was  resolved 
to  develop  the  religion  on  its  original  lines. 
This  means,  we  presume,  to  resist  all  tendencies 
towards  theism — for  Jainism  is  decidedly 
atheistic.  But  the  time-spirit  affects  even  the 
Jains ;  and  the  Conference  earnestly  recom- 
mended the  reform  of  various  social  customs — 
such  as  child-marriage,  the  practice  of  pur- 
chasing wives,  extravagant  expenditure  on 
certain  ceremonial  occasions,  and  the  beating  of 
the  breast  at  funerals. 

1  See  Dr  Biihler  on  the  Jains ;  edited  by  Dr  Burgess, 
1902. 


LECTURE  FIFTH 

MUHAMMAD  ANISM 

IN  treating  of  this  religion  it  is  necessary  to 
dwell  at  considerable  length  on  the  life  and 
character  of  its  founder. 

Everything  shows  that  Muhammad,  even  in 
early  youth,  was  much  inclined  to  pensive 
meditation.  One  of  his  biographers  describes 
him  as  sorrowful  in  temperament,  restless, 
continually  thinking.  He  was  highly  nervous, 
ardent,  impassioned,  imaginative;  and  he  had 
many  of  the  highest  endowments  of  the  Arab 
mind.  The  chief  traits  of  his  outward  man 
were  large,  dark,  lustrous  eyes,  middle  height, 
strong  build,  voice  musical  and  sonorous,  mien 
and  bearing  majestic. 

Muhammad  appeared  in  a  time  of  much  mental 
agitation  in  Arabia.  The  old  pagan  faith  was 
breaking  up.  Various  new  systems  were  press- 
ing forward — Judaism,  Christianity,  several 
Christian  heresies,  Zoroastrianism — these  and 


210  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

other  forms  of  belief  were  all  present.  There 
were  public  discussions  in  religion  at  the  great 
annual  fairs. 

We  have  no  difficulty,  then,  in  seeing  how 
Muhammad  had  his  attention  drawn  to  religion. 
Two  journeys  which  he  took  into  Christian 
Syria — one  in  his  twelfth  year,  the  other  in 
his  twenty-fifth — must  also,  to  so  inquiring  a 
mind,  have  been  variously  suggestive. 

A  learned  biographer,  Sprenger,  has  said  that 
"  Islam  was  not  the  work  of  Muhammad,  but  the 
offspring  of  the  spirit  of  the  time. "  Sir  William 
Muir,  a  high  authority  on  Muhammadanism, 
rejects  this  view,  and  rightly  holds  that  Islam 
owes  its  distinctive  features  to  Muhammad's 
personality.  Certainly,  if  the  age  supplied 
the  materials,  Muhammad  was  the  skilled 
workman  who  fashioned  them  into  shape; 
and  the  whole  style  of  the  building  betrays  the 
peculiar  genius  of  the  architect. 

By  the  year  610,  when  about  forty  years 
of  age,  Muhammad  had  become  still  more  ab- 
stracted and  melancholy.  Whole  days  were 
spent  in  solitary  meditation  in  a  wild  region 
not  far  from  Mecca.  He  now  became  greatly 
excited,  and  twice  attempted  suicide. 

At   the   age   of  forty-four   (A.D.    614)   he 


MUHAMMAD  ANISM  2 1 1 

began  to  teach,  but  privately.  He  vehemently 
denounced  idolatry.  He  had  been  a  religious 
idolater;  but  he  now  abhorred  the  false 
divinities.  His  sanguine  mind  expected  that 
his  pleadings  would  be  heard.  But  no  ;  some 
smiled  at  his  burning  zeal ;  others  treated  him 
with  scorn.  When  he  ventured  to  denounce 
the  tutelar  deities  of  Mecca,  he  aroused 
vehement  indignation.  So  the  battle  went  on, 
Muhammad's  lips  shot  forth  fiery  darts;  but 
at  best  they  struck  only  on  granite  rock. 

He  was  through  life  intolerant  of  opposition, 
and  the  behaviour  of  his  fellow-citizens  not 
only  threw  him  into  mental  agony  but  seriously 
affected  his  bodily  health.  From  childhood  he 
had  been  subj  ect  to  occasional  strange  attacks 
of  illness ;  and  these  now  became  frequent  and 
violent.  Sprenger  says  that  he  was  for  some 
time  a  complete  maniac.  He  himself  began  to 
fear  for  his  reason.  "I  hear  a  strange  sound," 
said  he,  "  I  see  a  light ;  I  fear  the  jinns  (the 
evil  spirits)  are  making  sport  of  me." 

Very  conflicting  opinions  have  been  expressed 
regarding  the  character  of  Muhammad.  The 
almost  universally  prevalent  idea  of  Europeans 
has  been  decidedly  unfavourable.  He  has 
been  charged  with  consummate  hypocrisy. 


212  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Even  such  tolerant  men  as  Grotius  and  Scaliger 
held  this  opinion.  The  following  quotation 
from  a  well-known  book,  White's  "Bampton 
Lectures,"  will  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  treatment 
that  Muhammad  has  generally  received  even  in 
recent  days : — 

"  Eagerly  ambitious  of  power,  the  Impostor 
determined  to  cover  his  deep  and  aspiring 
schemes  under  the  specious  veil  of  Divine 
Revelation.  Hence,  with  a  boldness  of  design 
that  was  exceeded  only  by  the  cunning  that 
conducted  it,  he  meditated  a  religion  which, 
by  flattering  the  corrupt  passions  and  prejudices 
of  each,  might  embrace  in  its  ample  and 
comprehensive  law  the  Christian,  the  idolater, 
and  the  Jew"  (p.  177). 

These  are  ringing  sentences ;  but  the  ex- 
planation they  offer  of  Muhammad's  character 
is  not  ours. 

For  a  considerable  time  past,  however,  there 
has  been  a  notable  change — at  least  in  many 
quarters ;  and,  indeed,  in  some  cases,  language 
has  been  used  regarding  his  whole  character 
and  career  that  seems  to  imply  a  forgetfulness 
of  moral  distinctions. 

False  from  the  outset  Muhammad  certainly 
was  not ;  his  fellow-townsmen  had  styled  him 


MUHAMMADANISM  213 

Al  Amin,  the  truthful ;  and  we  can  hardly 
believe  that  such  a  man  could  have  been  trans- 
formed into  the  boldest  and  basest  of  hypocrites. 
Four  years  of  enthusiastic  preaching  had 
brought  him  only  forty  converts — several  of 
them  relatives,  others  slaves,  or  the  poorest 
of  the  poor.  When  he  pleaded  passionately 
against  idolatry,  he  was  asked,  "  Why,  then, 
does  not  God  send  a  prophet  to  teach  us?" 
Opposition  was  increasing ;  people  were  be- 
ginning to  say,  "  If  the  fool  cannot  be  laughed 
down,  he  must  be  crushed  down  by  the  strong 
hand."  What !  was  idolatry  to  triumph,  and 
the  end  of  all  his  preaching  and  burning  tears 
to  be  death  or  madness  ?  Oh  for  the  visible 
interposition  of  God  on  behalf  of  His  own  holy 
cause  and  His  unhappy  servant !  What  wonder 
if  in  a  moment  of  high-wrought  excitement, 
when  reason  reeled,  he  thought  he  saw  the 
white-winged  messenger  for  whose  coming  he 
had  so  vehemently  longed  and  prayed  ? 

Here   is  Muhammad's   account  of  his  first 
meeting  with  the  angel  Gabriel : — 

"  He  stood 

In  the  highest  part  of  the  horizon  ; 
Then  he  came  nearer,  and  approached  close, 
And  he  was  at  the  distance  of  two  bow-lengths,  or  even 
closer ; 


2i4  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

And  he  revealed  to  his  servant  what  he  revealed.  .   .  . 

His  heart  falsified  not  what  he  saw, — 

What  ?  will  ye  dispute  with  him  as  to  what  he  saw  ?  "  1 

It  may  have  been  a  dream,  or  perhaps  a 
vision  in  high- wrought  ecstasy;  but  we  can 
hardly  doubt  that  Muhammad  believed  that  he 
had,  as  he  says,  actually  seen  all  this. 

Now,  surely,  he  thought,  his  countrymen 
would  receive  him  as  a  divinely  commissioned 
teacher.  But  they  did  not.  It  would  seem 
that,  on  this,  he  was  plunged  into  deeper 
melancholy  than  ever;  and  it  is  to  this  period 
that  we  may  refer  his  attempts  at  suicide.  The 
suspension  of  the  so-called  revelation  is  variously 
stated  at  six  months  or  three  years.  To 
Muhammad,  believing  in  his  divine  commission 
to  restore  "the  faith  of  Abraham,"  it  must 
have  been  a  time  of  torture ;  and  his  denuncia- 
tions of  his  opponents  now  became  dreadfully 
severe.  With  the  bitter  disappointment  there 
was  equally  bitter  rage.  I  believe  in  a  steady 
deterioration  of  Muhammad's  character ;  and  I 
think  we  may  trace  its  commencement  to  this 
very  trying  period. 

Of  the  later  history  of  Muhammad  a  brief 
outline  will  suffice.  He  died  at  the  age  of 

1  Rudwell's  Koran,  p.  56. 


MUHAMMAD  ANISM  215 

sixty-two  or  sixty-three — twenty  years  after 
his  first  appearance  as  a  preacher.  Thirteen 
of  these  were  spent  at  Mecca  amidst  manifold 
discouragements.  At  first  the  utterances  were 
abrupt,  enthusiastic,  startling,  sometimes  truly 
poetical.  The  unity  of  God,  the  vanity  of 
idols,  his  own  apostleship,  resurrection,  judg- 
ment, paradise,  hell — these  were  the  topics 
chiefly  insisted  on.  Paradise  is  painted  as  a 
region  of  gardens,  vineyards,  a  flowing  cup, 
and  delights  still  grosser.  Hell  is  described 
with  all  the  stern  realism  of  Dante's  Inferno. 
The  duties  enjoined  are  faith,  repentance, 
prayer,  almsgiving,  truthfulness,  and  honesty. 

The  preaching  at  first,  though  impassioned, 
was  conciliatory ;  we  might  almost  suspect 
that  he  had  a  secret  doubt  of  his  own  commis- 
sion. But  after  four  years  or  so  the  tone 
begins  to  change.  His  assertion  of  authority 
becomes  more  vehement;  he  is  not  only  a 
prophet,  but  the  seal  of  the  prophets — i.e.  he 
seals  up  and  closes  the  whole  lofty  line.  There 
are  curses  also;  there  are  terrible  threats. 
Vengeance  is  at  hand ;  and  he  exults  in  the 
approaching  ruin  of  his  foes. 

Thirteen  years  were  spent  at  Mecca. 

It  was  in  622   that  Muhammad  fled  from 


216  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Mecca  to  the  city  thenceforward  called  Medina 
— Medmat  al  Nabi,  "the  city  of  the  Prophet." 
From  this  date  commences  the  era  used  in  all 
Muhammadan  lands — the  Hijrah, — that  is,  the 
Flight. 

Now  Muhammad  assumes  the  position  of  a 
great  warrior-chieftain.  Into  the  next  ten 
years  were  crowded  twenty-seven  military 
expeditions,  or,  including  smaller  ones,  forty. 
He  was  personally  present  in  at  least  one  great 
battle.  His  followers  grew  into  an  army 
which  no  power  in  Arabia  could  resist.  He 
despatched  embassies  to  announce  his  prophetic 
office  to  the  King  of  Persia,  the  King  of 
Abyssinia,  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  the 
Emperor  of  Constantinople.  He  was  preparing 
for  an  attack  on  the  last-mentioned  monarch ; 
but  his  force  proved  insufficient  and  turned 
back  when  it  reached  Damascus — half-way  on 
its  march.  A  mortal  illness  then  seized  him, 
and  soon  afterwards  he  died.  During  those 
ten  years  in  Medina  the  character  of  Muham- 
mad steadily  changed  to  the  worse.  He  became 
more  selfish  and  cruel,  and  more  abandoned  to 
sensual  indulgence. 

One  would  be  glad  to  know  with  what 
feelings  this  remarkable  man  met  the  King  of 


MUHAMMAD  ANISM  217 

Terrors.  We  have  traditions  ;  but  they  were 
not  collected  till  nearly  two  centuries  after  his 
death,  and  we  cannot  well  trust  them.  We 
are  told  that  he  expired  with  such  words  on 
his  lips  as  these:  "  O  God,  help  me  in  the 
agony  of  death."  u  Eternity  of  Paradise ;  par- 
don." "The  glorious  companions  on  high." 

On  that  deathbed  we  must  gaze  in  awful 
silence. 

It  may  be  well  to  sum  up  here  our  im- 
pressions of  Muhammad's  character. 

Intellectually  he  stood  high ;  we  may  call 
him  the  great  Arabian.  He  was  both  a 
warrior  and  a  statesman.  He  was  fully  con- 
scious of  his  capacities,  and  was  a  man  of 
soaring  ambition. 

It  has  often  struck  me  that  Lucan's  animated 
description  of  Julius  Caesar  might  answer  for 
Muhammad.1  I  confess  that  this  is  giving  him 
high  praise,  for  Julius  Cassar  was  probably  the 
very  greatest  of  the  ancient  Romans. 

Of  his  moral  character  I  hardly  care  to 
speak.  He  was  very  revengeful,  and  many 
of  his  deeds  were  remorselessly  cruel.  His 
family  arrangements  I  must  also  pass  by.  The 
only  point  on  which  one  can  dwell  with  com- 
1  Lucan,  "  Pharsalia,"  i.  145,  etc. 


218   THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

placency,  is  that  he  never  after  her  death 
forgot  Khadijah,  his  first  wife.  Still,  at  the 
time  of  his  own  death,  he  had  nine  wives  and 
two  concubines. 

The  religious  conceptions  of  Muhammad 
were  exceedingly  defective.  To  him  Allah 
was  only  an  almighty  despot  ruling  a  universe 
of  slaves.  He  had  little  conception  of  the 
Divine  love,  and  equally  little  of  the  evil  of  sin. 

There  was  no  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
into  Arabic;  Muhammad  was  never  really  in 
contact  with  the  Word  of  God.  Instead  of 
this,  there  was  current  the  book  called  the 
"Gospel  of  the  Infancy,"  which  was  full  of 
fables. 

Muhammad  hated  polytheism  and  idolatry. 
Regarding  Christ  no  words  ever  passed  his 
lips  but  those  of  the  highest  reverence.  He 
called  Jesus  "  the  sinless  prophet,"  a  high 
designation  which  he  never  claimed  for  himself. 

He  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity; 
but,  as  then  stated  in  Arabia,  it  was  not  the 
true  doctrine  of  that  great  mystery. 

He  rejected  also  the  great  facts  of  the  death 
and  resurrection  of  Christ.  We  may  well 
mourn  over  this,  but  we  hardly  wonder.  To 
a  man  with  so  feeble  a  sense  of  the  Divine 


MUHAMMADANISM  219 

love  and  human  sin,  the  doctrine  of  the 
Atonement  must  have  been  incredible. 

I  need  not  repeat  what  has  been  already 
said  about  Muhammad's  fall.  He  probably 
never  was  a  deeply  conscientious  man;  and 
when  the  temptation  was  all  the  power  and 
glory  of  the  world,  Muhammad  yielded  to  the 
tempter.  He  fell,  as  ten  thousands  before  and 
since  have  fallen. 

Whether  he  was  aware  of  his  moral  de- 
gradation, which  went  on  increasing,  is  doubt- 
ful. It  is  probable  that  to  the  last  he  believed 
that  it  was  right  to  do  evil  that  good  might  come. 

The  spectacle  is  profoundly  saddening.  We 
condemn  Muhammad.  Yes,  but  what  shall 
we  say  of  the  Christian  Church  that  left  him 
ignorant  of  the  Bible?  Alas,  when  we  think 
what  might  have  been!  We  cannot  help 
believing  that,  if  this  remarkable  man  had 
only  known  the  true  Gospel,  he  might  have 
become  the  Apostle  of  Arabia. 

But  before  passing  from  Muhammad's  life 
we  ought  to  mention  that  he  was  not  always 
in  a  state  of  excitement,  when  Gabriel,  as  he 
says,  brought  a  revelation.  He  tells  us  that 
sometimes  the  angel  came  and  spoke  to  him 
as  one  man  speaks  to  another;  "and  this," 


220  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

he  said,  "  is  easy."  What  are  we  to  make 
of  this?  We  may  suppose  that  Muhammad 
mistook  a  vivid  dream  for  a  reality.  If  such  be 
not  the  explanation,  it  is  difficult  to  free  him 
from  the  charge  of  falsehood;  and  if  this 
be  the  explanation,  then  Muhammad  had  fully 
adopted  the  ruinous  belief  that  the  end  justifies 
the  means.  You  remember  that  the  Apostle 
says  of  those  who  hold  that  principle — "  their 
damnation  is  just."  But  we  are  almost  com- 
pelled to  believe  that  Muhammad  did  adopt 
it.  He  knew  he  abhorred  idolatry,  and  was 
jealous  for  the  honour  of  God.  He  earnestly 
longed  to  see  his  countrymen  worshipping  only 
Allah ;  we  believe  that  at  one  time  he  would 
willingly  have  died  to  secure  that  great  end. 
He  thought  he  had  really  seen  the  angel  at 
least  once;  and  if,  to  secure  the  reception 
of  an  important  message,  he  should  now  say 
he  had  seen  him  when  actually  he  had  not, 
would  it  matter  so  very  much?  If  it  was 
taking  some  liberty  with  truth,  God  would 
surely  forgive  His  servant  for  the  sin — if, 
indeed,  in  the  circumstances  it  was  such.  So 
he  evidently  believed.  We  all  know — 

"  by  what  unseen  and  unsuspected  arts 
The  serpent  error  twines  round  human  hearts  "  ; 


MUHAMMADANISM  221 

and  the  first  case  of  conscious  deception  was  a 
fatal  error.  It  led  to  a  steady  hardening  and 
degradation  of  Muhammad's  soul. 

Both  by  Muhammad  and  his  followers  the 
Quran  has  always  been  regarded  as  a  standing 
miracle.  The  orthodox  belief  is  that  it  is 
eternal,  uncreated,  inscribed  along  with  all  the 
Divine  decrees  on  a  preserved  tablet.  A  copy 
of  this  original  was,  on  the  "  Night  of  Power," 
sent  down  to  the  lowest  heaven ;  and  this  the 
angel  is  said  to  have  brought  part  by  part 
to  Muhammad,  during  twenty-three  years. 
Muhammad  wrote  down  what  the  angel 
recited,  and  then  dictated  it  to  amanuenses. 

European  writers  of  all  schools  of  thought 
have  generally  passed  severe  judgment  on  the 
Quran.  Luther  most  vehemently  condemned 
it;  and  the  wise  and  gentle  Melanchthon,  in 
speaking  of  it,  became  one-sided  and  harsh. 
Gibbon  styles  it  "an  endless  incoherent 
rhapsody,  of  fable  and  precept  and  declamation, 
which  sometimes  crawls  in  the  dust  and  some- 
times is  lost  in  the  clouds."  Carlyle,  though 
he  speaks  too  kindly  of  Muhammad  himself — 
being  moved  by  admiration  of  his  force  of 
character — has  called  it  "a  bewildered  rhap- 
sody j  insupportable  stupidity  in  short."  Such 


222   THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

criticisms  strike  me  as  too  severe.  In  the 
earliest  chapters  there  is  often  a  spark  of 
poetry,  and  even  in  the  later  ones  sometimes. 
Earnestness,  at  all  events,  is  seldom  wanting. 

As  for  the  style,  its  balanced  clauses  and 
rhyming  assonances  always  charm  the  Arab 
ear;  and  to  others,  when  they  hear  them 
chanted  in  a  high-roofed  mosque,  the  sonorous 
Arabic  has  a  weird  melody,  as  of  the  desert 
wind.  As  for  the  ideas,  their  range  is  exceed- 
ingly narrow.  In  reality  there  is  nothing  new. 
Much  of  Judaism,  but  not  pure ;  a  little  of 
Christianity,  not  pure ;  something  of  old  Arab 
paganism;  a  trace  perhaps  of  Zoroastrianism ; 
and  some  thoughts  of  his  own — these  things 
make  up  the  Quran. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the 
language  used  at  Mecca  and  Medina  re- 
spectively :  Muhammadan  writers  themselves 
speak  of  the  "  two  faces  of  the  Quran."  But 
apart  from  this,  contradictions  are  very  frequent. 
Muhammad  from  time  to  time  changed  his 
plans;  and,  to  meet  the  exigency,  a  new 
command  from  heaven  was  pleaded  which 
abrogated  one  that  had  preceded.  Muham- 
madan writers  state  that  225  verses  were  thus 
cancelled.  He  had  to  speak  of  the  superseded 


MUHAMMADANISM  223 

parts,  and  he  puts  these  words  into  the  angel's 
mouth,  "  Whatever  verse  we  shall  abrogate  or 
cause  thee  to  forget,  we  shall  bring  a  better 
than  it,  or  one  like  it "  (Sona  ii.). 

The  Muhammadan  doctors  divide  religion 
into  two  parts,  the  dogmatic  and  the  practical. 

Under  the  former  comes  what  must  be 
believed  concerning  God,  Angels,  the  Sacred 
Oracles,  the  Prophets,  the  Resurrection,  the 
Judgment,  and  Predestination — six  articles  in 
all. 

The  practical  part  consists  of  five  pillars  or 
foundations — namely, 

1 .  The  recital  of  the  Kalima  or  Creed. 

2.  Five    times   of  daily    prayer:    before 

sunrise,  at  noon,  before  sunset,  after 
sunset,  and  when  night  sets  in. 
All  the  prayers  are  recited  in  fixed  forms  of 
Arabic  words. 

3.  The  thirty  days'  fast,  i.e.  during  the 

month  of  Ramazan. 

4.  Almsgiving. 

5.  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 

I  may  also  give  the  creed.  It  is  brief. 
"  There  is  no  God  but  Allah,  and  Muhammad 
is  the  Messenger  of  Allah." 

It  is  the  boast  of  the  Muhammadans  that 


224  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

they,  more  clearly  and  emphatically  than  any 
other  religionists,  assert  the  unity  of  God.  It 
is  a  theological  question  how  far  the  bald 
deism  of  the  Quran  and  its  stern  denial  of  the 
Divine  Sonship  renders  the  true  God  incon- 
ceivable. At  all  events,  the  Muhammadan 
conception  of  Allah  is  grievously  imperfect. 
Sovereignty  and  power — these  two  attributes 
throw  all  the  rest  into  the  shade.  The  book 
never  speaks  either  of  the  love  of  God  or  of 
love  to  God.  Homage  is  what  Allah  demands, 
not  love.  Man  made  in  the  image  of  God 
and  capable  of  intercourse  with  God,  as  a 
child  with  a  father — this  is  a  conception 
which  Muhammad  would  have  passionately 
denounced.  Holiness  is  most  imperfectly  con- 
ceived. Divine  mercy  is  often  mentioned; 
but  it  is  a  mercy  which,  when  the  prescribed 
worship  is  observed,  passes  easily  over  the 
grossest  sins.  It  follows  that  the  idea  of  Sin 
is  most  imperfect. 

Such  searchings  of  heart  as  abound  in  the 
Bible  are  unknown  to  the  Quran. 

Communion  with  God  in  the  biblical  sense 
is  hardly  understood,  and  prayer  is  little  more 
than  praise.  It  is  not  so  much  a  mental  as  a 
mechanical  act. 


MUHAMMADANISM  225 

Perhaps  these  remarks  may  be  thought 
severe,  but  far  severer  criticisms  could  be 
quoted  from  many  well-informed  writers. 
Thus  the  traveller  Palgrave,  who  mixed  freely 
with  Muhammadans  for  many  years,  declares 
that  the  Muhammadan  conceptions  of  God  are 
"monstrous  and  blasphemous."  The  Arab 
Bedouins  of  whom  Palgrave  speaks  are  not  a 
religious  people,  and  their  conceptions  are  not 
all  traceable  to  the  Quran.  The  ideas  are 
Arabian,  but  not  necessarily  Muhammadan. 

The  evils  resulting  from  the  pilgrimage, 
which  it  is  a  mortal  sin  wholly  to  neglect  if  one 
is  physically  equal  to  it,  are  immensely  great. 
Had  the  faith  been  confined  to  Arabia,  the 
effects  would  have  been  less  serious ;  but  when 
Islam  had  extended  over  Asia  and  a  large  part 
of  Africa,  they  became  truly  disastrous.  Im- 
mense physical  suffering  is  connected  with  the 
pilgrimage.  Plague  often  breaks  out  and 
spreads  from  Mecca  as  a  centre ;  and  if  the 
European  powers  could  stop  the  pilgrimage 
without  arousing  the  whole  Moslem  world, 
they  would  gladly  do  so. 

And  what  are  the  observances  binding  on 
the  pilgrims  ?  In  pilgrim  garb  they  walk  seven 
times  round  the  sacred  mosque  ;  they  kiss  the 


226  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

black  stone  seven  times ;  they  drink  of  the 
water — intensely  brackish — of  the  well  of  Zem- 
zem ;  they  shave  their  heads,  pare  their  nails, 
and  have  their  hair  and  nails  buried.  They 
then  ascend  Mount  Arafat  and  throw  showers 
of  stones  at  three  pillars.  This  is  understood 
to  be  stoning  the  devil. 

Nearly  every  regulation  regarding  one-half  of 
the  human  race — I  mean  woman — is  supremely 
objectionable.  Family  life  is  destroyed,  and 
society  is  poisoned  at  its  fountain-head.  The 
Muhammadan  is  allowed  four  legitimate  wives, 
with  divorce  at  pleasure.1  One  of  Muham- 
mad's grandsons  divorced  eighty  wives  in  suc- 
cession. What  we  call  illegitimate  wives 
may  be  in  any  number.  In  practice  women 
are  excluded  from  public  worship.  The  Quran 
indeed  is  silent  on  the  subject ;  but  the  pro- 
hibition flowed  naturally — indeed  inevitably — 
from  the  conception  of  woman  presented  in  the 
Quran.  The  women  must  be  kept  in  with 
bolts  and  bars.  I  need  not  dwell  on  the 
miserable  folly  of  all  this. 

Slavery  is  also  fully  sanctioned ;  a  man  may 
have  as  many  slaves  as  he  can  acquire  or 
retain ;  and  all  these  unhappy  creatures, 

1  With  some  restriction  as  to  property 


MUHAMMADANISM  227 

whether  men  or  women,  are  entirely  at  his 
mercy. 

It  is  the  bounden  duty  of  every  Muhammadan 
to  do  his  utmost  to  extend  the  faith.  Three 
things  are  offered  to  unbelieving  races — con- 
version, tribute,  or  death.  If  Muhammadan 
nations  do  not  still  deluge  the  world  with 
blood,  it  is  because  they  are  unable  to  carry 
out  Muhammad's  command.  He  declares  that 
the  angel  thus  addressed  him :  "  O  Prophet, 
make  war  on  the  infidels  and  hypocrites,  and 
treat  them  severely.  Hell  is  their  portion,  and 
rough  is  the  passage  to  it.  Not  until  Anti- 
Christ  shall  come  must  war  for  the  extension 
of  the  faith  be  allowed  to  cease." 

Apostasy  from  Islam  involves  death,  and 
that  doom  is  inevitable  in  most  Moslem  countries. 
In  Turkey  the  European  powers  have  extorted 
concessions  that  may — at  least  in  the  great 
cities — save  the  convert's  life.  But  all  depends 
on  the  Sultan. 

It  has  been  said  by  some  that  Islam,  with  all 
its  faults,  elevates  degraded  races  and  helps 
on  the  civilisation  of  the  world.  Doubtless 
Islam  is  better  than  the  horrible  demonolatries 
existing  in  some  parts  of  Africa,  according  to 
which  there  is  no  splendour  in  any  "  custom  " 


228   THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

unless  human  blood  flow  in  streams ;  and 
cannibals,  of  course,  are  raised  by  accepting 
Islam.  But  if  it  raises  them  to  a  certain 
elevation,  it  fixes  them  there;  and  then  it  is 
infinitely  difficult  to  move  them  a  single  step 
higher.  For  one  mark  of  the  Quran  is  said  to 
befoutlitfi  and  to  improve  on  the  legislation  of 
Muhammad  is  like  correcting  Heaven. 

About  a  year  ago  a  great  conflict  was  raging 
in  Morocco ;  the  struggle  was  not  really 
between  two  men — the  Sultan  and  the  Pre- 
tender— but  between  two  principles,  Reform 
and  stern  Conservatism.  The  Sultan  has 
adopted  some  European  ideas  and  wishes  to 
reduce  them  to  practice ;  but  the  great  body 
of  the  chiefs  abhor  all  innovation  and  seem 
prepared  to  die  rather  than  accept  it.  They 
insist  on  retaining  their  chains  and  dungeons 
and  power  to  torture.  The  Quran  ties  men 
down  to  the  Arab  semi-civilisation  of  the  seventh 
century.  We  are  in  the  twentieth ;  and  the 
difference  between  the  two  positions  is  measure- 
less! 

At  an  early  period  Paradise  was  promised 
to  him  who  fell  fighting  for  the  faith.  The 
Arabs  of  the  desert  are  capable  of  deeds  of 
splendid  valour ;  and,  with  such  an  assurance 


MUHAMMADANISM  229 

as  this,  no  wonder  if  they  rush  on  the  point 
of  the  spear,  courting  death  even  more  than 
victory.  Paradise — and  such  a  paradise !  — 
and  won  so  easily !  It  turns  the  coward  into 
a  hero,  or,  I  should  rather  say,  into  an  in- 
carnate fury.  No  wonder  if  the  trained 
legions  of  the  Eastern  Empire  gave  way 
before  the  irresistible  rush  of  men  all  panting 
for  instant  transmission  to  delights  that  far 
surpassed  any  joy  this  earth  could  offer. 

One  remarkable  characteristic  of  Muham- 
madans,  as  has  been  said,  is  this :  every  one 
of  them  is  possessed  of  proselytising  zeal. 
An  Arab  trader,  for  example,  on  his  travels, 
is  probably  a  keen  man  of  business;  but 
wherever,  he  goes,  he  seeks  to  gain  converts 
to  the  faith.  He  may  be  only  a  worldly  man 
and  quite  capable  of  what  we  call  very  sharp 
practice ;  but  in  this  sense  he  is  a  religious 
man — he  is  zealous  for  the  extension  of  Islam. 
Herein  surely  there  is  a  remarkable  difference 
between  him  and  a  worldly  European.  The 
European  perhaps  even  sneers  at  conversion;  but 
at  all  events  he  takes  no  part  in  proselytising. 
Whence  this  striking  difference  ?  The  question, 
I  think,  could  be  answered ;  but  I  will  leave  it 
with  my  readers  as  an  interesting  problem. 


230  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Muhammadanism  is  widely  extended,  and  we 
sometimes  see  this  referred  to  as  a  proof  of 
its  adaptation  to  human  nature.  The  real 
causes  of  its  rapid  and  wide  extension  are 
frequently  forgotten ;  and  it  may  be  well  to 
dwell  on  these  at  some  length.  Of  Mu- 
hammad's own  wars  we  have  already  spoken. 
On  his  death  most  of  the  Arab  tribes  broke 
loose  from  their  allegiance.  Only  three  re- 
mained faithful,  and  the  very  existence  of 
Islam  was  seriously  imperilled.  Two  able 
men,  however,  were  unshaken  in  their  fidelity ; 
and  the  skill  of  Abu  Baqr  and  the  valour  of 
Khalid  overcame  the  terrible  danger.  Tribe 
after  tribe  was  either  won  over  by  persuasion 
or  subdued  by  force.  Still,  there  was  only 
one  means  by  which  their  attachment  to 
Islam  could  be  secured;  and  of  that  means 
the  prudence  of  Abu  Baqr  at  once  availed 
itself.  He  held  up  before  the  tribes  the 
prospect  of  immeasurable  spoil.  He  showed 
them  that  the  world  was  all  before  them,  to 
subdue  for  God  and  the  Prophet — or,  in  other 
words,  for  themselves. 

Had  some  commanding  mind — another 
Attila,  Gengis  Khan,  or  Napoleon — arisen  at 
this  juncture  in  Arabia  and  succeeded  in 


MUHAMMADANISM  231 

rallying  its  tribes  beneath  his  banner — even 
had  he  made  no  pretension  to  a  commission 
from  Heaven,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree 
probable  that  we  should  still  have  witnessed 
the  same  overpowering  rush  of  Arab  victory 
as  history  actually  records.  Everything 
favoured  the  sons  of  the  desert.  Fierce, 
hardy,  tameless,  deeming  all  that  the  strong 
hand  could  win  to  be  honourable  spoil,  it  was 
only  intestine  strife  that  had  so  long  kept 
them  pent  up  within  their  barren  country. 
Broad,  fair  lands  were  before  them,  tenanted 
by  races  physically  their  inferiors,  and  for  the 
most  part  slothful  and  unwarlike.  On  the 
other  hand  the  Arabs  were  experienced 
warriors,  making  up  for  what  might  be 
wanting  in  discipline  by  fiery  valour.  P'rom 
childhood  they  had  been  familiar  with  the 
bow,  the  lance,  and  the  scimitar;  they  were 
more  at  home  in  the  saddle  than  the  tent,  and 
their  lives  had  been  largely  spent  in  planning 
and  executing  military  inroads. 

Two  great  empires  then  divided  Asia 
between  them  as  far  eastward  as  the  river 
Indus — those  of  Constantinople  and  Persia. 
Persia,  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century, 
had  to  a  large  extent  recovered  its  ancient 


232  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

dominion  and  had  restored  the  Zoroastrian 
faith;  but  in  the  course  of  four  centuries 
it  had  fallen  into  anarchy.  The  reigning 
prince  was  a  boy  of  sixteen.  The  later 
Greek  Empire  exhibited  a  spectacle  no  less 
woful.  All  the  errors  and  vices  that  marked 
the  decline  of  the  Western  Empire  were  re- 
produced in  the  Eastern,  with  but  few  traces 
of  that  valour  that  had,  from  time  to  time, 
flashed  forth  as  the  ancient  Roman  greatness 
slowly  faded  away.  Moreover,  religious  strife 
had  become  inflamed  into  bitter  rancour.  The 
strongest  party  was  that  of  the  Melchites  or 
Royalists,  who  called  themselves  Catholics 
or  Orthodox;  but  there  were  many  sects — 
Monophysites,  Nestorians,  and  others.  The 
fearfully  weakening  effect  of  their  dissensions 
will  be  appreciated  from  the  circumstance  that 
the  Copts  of  Egypt  sided  with  the  Muham- 
madans  on  their  invasion  of  Egypt,  hailing 
them  as  deliverers  from  the  intolerable  op- 
pression of  the  Royalist  party. 

Everything,  then,  favoured  the  impetuous 
Arabs  as  they  fretted  to  be  let  loose.  The 
word  was  given,  and  immediately  one  army 
was  on  its  march  northward  to  Christian  Syria, 
and  another  eastward  to  Zoroastrian  Persia. 


MUHAMMADANISM  233 

Both  countries  were  easy  conquests ;  in  the 
one  case  the  sumless  wealth  of  Persia  was 
a  splendid  prize,  and  in  the  other  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem  was  esteemed  a  still  higher  re- 
compense, and  il  raised  the  spirit  of  the  Arabs 
to  fever  heat.  Egypt  fell  next ;  then  Tripoli ; 
and  then,  in  the  course  of  half  a  century,  all 
Northern  Africa  was  subdued.  Thereafter  the 
unquenchable  ardour  of  the  Moslems  carried 
them  across  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century  saw  them 
masters  of  the  larger  part  of  Spain.  It  was 
little  more  than  a  century  after  the  death  of 
Muhammad  when  the  great  wave  that  had  rolled 
on  unchecked  to  submerge  all  Western  Europe 
reached  its  furthest  limit.  Near  the  city  of 
Tours,  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire,  the  mighty 
Saracen  host  of  Abd-ur-rahman  was  crushed, 
after  a  conflict  of  seven  days,  by  Charles 
Martel,  the  grandfather  of  Charlemagne. 

The  naval  battles  and  conquests  of  the 
Muhammadans  were  hardly  less  remarkable. 
Their  fleets  floated  triumphant  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. Crete  and  Sicily  were  wholly  sub- 
dued, with  a  great  part  of  Corsica,  Sardinia, 
and  Southern  Italy. 

Such  and  so  potent  was  the  lust  of  conquest 


234  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

— for  I  repeat  that  the  lust  of  conquest  was 
the  great  impelling  power. 

True,  these  were,  in  a  sense,  religious  wars. 
The  Moslems  thought  they  were  obeying 
Allah  when  they  subdued  or  slaughtered  the 
infidel. 

There  has  been  thrown  around  the  Caliphat 
and  the  Saracenic  kingdoms  generally — for  the 
vast  structure  soon  broke  into  fragments — a 
golden  atmosphere  of  romance  ;  but  when  we 
calmly  inquire  what  the  early  Moslem  dominion 
really  was,  and  what  the  Saracens  accomplished 
of  good  for  the  human  race,  the  splendour 
dies  at  once.  There  was  one  century  of  head- 
long valour  and  brilliant  conquest;  another 
century  followed  of  stagnation  and  precarious 
dominion ;  and  a  third  of  rapid  and  irretriev- 
able decay. 

I  may  perhaps  be  reminded  of  what  some 
Christian  lands  have  done  to  extend  their 
religion  by  war  and  bloodshed.  With  this  I 
have  nothing  to  do;  my  object  has  been  to 
remind  you  how  different  from  the  military 
propagation  of  Muhammadanism  was  the 
mode  in  which  the  early  Gospel  was  extended. 

The  feeling  of  the  Moslem  towards  men  of 
other  creeds  has  all  along  been  one  of  mingled 


MUHAMMADANISM  235 

hatred  and  contempt.  The  history  of  India 
almost  proves  that  the  Moslems  there  never 
forgot  the  principle  enunciated  by  the  prime 
minister  of  the  great  conqueror  Mahmud  of 
Ghazni,  viz.,  that  it  was  "  not  needful  to  have 
mercy  on  a  pagan  idolater."  Incidents  like 
the  following  were  frequently  occurring, — 
Hindus  put  to  death  for  disputing  with  Muham- 
madans  on  religion  ;  idols  broken  in  pieces  ; 
temples  destroyed;  prohibitions  of  Hindu 
worship,  processions,  or  oblations ;  forced 
conversions;  forced  marriages — men  in  power 
seizing  on  the  wives  and  daughters  of  idolaters 
at  their  pleasure  ;  proscriptions  ;  confiscations ; 
murders ; — and  these  horrors  so  frequent,  that 
the  Moslem  historian  hardly  pauses  to  express 
either  condemnation  or  regret. 

A  daily  prayer  which  the  pupils  are  taught 
to  offer  in  the  Cairo  schools  is  as  follows : 
"In  the  name  of  God  the  Compassionate,  the 
Merciful :  O  God,  destroy  the  infidels  and 
polytheists,  Thine  enemies  and  the  enemies  of 
Thy  religion.  Make  their  children  orphans 
and  defile  their  homes;  cause  their  feet  to 
slip.  Give  them  and  their  families,  their 
households,  and  their  women  and  their  children 
and  their  brethren  and  their  friends  and  their 


236  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

possessions  and  their  wealth  and  their  lands  as 
booty  to  the  Moslems,  O  Thou  Lord  of  all 
creatures."  l 

But  I  must  pass  on  to  notice  the  present 
condition  of  Muhammadanism  in  India. 

The  Muhammadan  population  of  India, 
according  to  the  last  census,  is  63  millions. 
Their  number  is  increasing,  though  not  by  any 
means  so  rapidly  as  the  Christians  are.  In 
former  days  Islam  was  extended  in  India  mainly 
by  force,  by  the  wars  of  such  conquerors  as 
Mahmud  of  Ghazni  and  the  persecution  of 
such  tyrants  as  Aurungzeb  and  Tippoo  Sultan. 

In  our  day  the  gains  of  Islam — like  those  of 
Christianity — are  mainly  from  the  wilder  tribes, 
the  hill  and  forest  races. 

Indian  Muhammadans  have  been  slowly 
coming  down  in  rank.  Both  Hindus  and 
Parsis  eagerly  avail  themselves  of  the  existing 
means  of  English  education.  But  not  so  the 
Moslems.  They  have  usually  professed  to 
despise  the  English  language  and  literature, 
which  cannot  compare  for  a  moment,  they 
think,  with  those  of  the  Arabs  and  Persians. 
Moreover,  they  dislike  mission  schools  because 
1  See  Lane's  "  Egyptians." 


MUHAMMADANISM  237 

they  teach  Christianity,  while  Government 
schools  are  almost  equally  objectionable  be- 
cause they  teach  no  religion.  But  the  con- 
viction has  gradually  sprung  up  that  English 
education  is  a  necessity.  This  is  an  important 
change,  and  fraught  with  other  changes. 

All  along,  for  at  least  fifty  years  past,  there 
has  been  earnest  discussion  on  the  subject 
of  religion  between  Christian  missionaries 
and  Muhammadans,  and  the  advocates  of 
Islam  have  been  sorely  perplexed  in  their 
attempts  to  defend  their  traditional  beliefs. 
They  have  been  in  many  cases  compelled  to 
explain  away  essential  portions  of  these ;  and, 
among  a  considerable  number,  a  rationalistic 
Muhammadanism  has  been  steadily  extending. 

Meanwhile  missions  have  been  pushing  on; 
and  even  the  Muhammadan  women  begin  to 
ask  why,  when  the  foreign  ladies  are  so 
diligent  among  Hindu  women,  they  should  not 
also  visit  Moslem  women.  Altogether,  there 
is  a  large  amount  of  agitation  on  the  subject  of 
religion  among  Indian  Muhammadans.  Tracts 
are  published  in  support  of  the  Quran,  and 
preachers  are  sent  out  to  defend  it. 

In  Amritsar  a  society  has  been  established 
"  to  help  new  converts  to  Islam,"  which 


238  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

appears  to  us  simply  a  barefaced  attempt  at 
bribery.  If  the  Muhammadans  will  pay  for 
converts,  they  can  no  doubt  get  them  in 
abundance. 

Meantime  there  is  not  only  the  rationalised 
Islam  we  have  spoken  of,  but  a  movement  has 
occurred  in  the  Punjaub  which  every  sincere 
Musalman  condemns  as  utterly  heterodox. 
Mirza  Ghulam  Ahmad  of  Qadian  proclaims 
that  he  is  not  only  the  great  expected 
Mahdi  who  comes  before  the  end  of  the  world, 
but  also  the  Messiah  of  this  generation.  This 
man  opposes  orthodox  Islam,  but  he  opposes 
Christianity  even  more.  Jesus,  he  says,  was  a 
prophet ;  but  he  himself  is  a  greater  prophet. 
The  Mirza  is  a  person  of  wealth,  and  circulates 
many  publications  in  support  of  his  views.  He 
claims  to  have  50,000  followers,  but  the  real 
number  may  be  10,000.  Among  these,  how- 
ever, we  find  to  our  surprise  some  men  of 
education  and  standing.  They  are  sick  of  the 
errors  and  evils  of  Islam;  and  not  knowing 
Christianity,  they  for  the  present  have  turned 
to  this  man,  who  professes  his  determination 
to  reform  religion.  The  explanation  is  to  be 
found  in  the  general  unrest  of  educated 
Muhammadans  in  India. 


MUHAMMADANISM  239 

A  very  interesting  experiment  has  been 
going  on  at  Aligarh  in  Northern  India.  Sir 
Sayad  Ahmad,  a  man  of  no  small  enlightenment, 
founded  a  college  there,  in  which,  along  with 
what  he  deemed  a  due  respect  for  Islam  and 
its  teachings,  there  should  at  the  same  time  be 
given  a  good  European  education.  The  new 
college  was  lately  visited  by  an  Educational 
Commission  appointed  by  Government,  which 
gave  in  a  decidedly  favourable  report  of  the 
arrangements  and  working  of  the  classes. 
English,  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Sanskrit  are  the 
languages  studied ;  and  the  course  is  fairly 
complete,  including  mathematics,  physical 
science,  Muhammadan  law,  history,  logic,  and 
political  science.  There  are  in  all  thirteen 
professors.  The  famous  University  of  Al- 
Azhar  in  Cairo  will  bear  no  comparison  in  its 
range  of  study  with  this  of  Aligarh.  Pupils 
attend  to  the  number  of  about  600,  and  they 
are  very  likely  to  increase;  for,  on  the 
whole,  the  new  college  is  popular.  It  is  simply 
impossible  that  under  the  instruction  they 
receive,  the  pupils  can  long  retain  the  intense 
bigotry  and  narrowness  that  have  hitherto 
characterised  Indian  Muhammadans.  Sir  Sayad 
himself  was  a  rationalist  who  did  not  estimate 


240   THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

the  inspiration  of  Muhammad  as  higher  than 
that  of  any  great  poet ;  and  we  understand 
that  the  entire  spirit  at  Aligarh  is  similarly 
rationalistic.1  If  the  college  continues  to 
prosper — as  it  seems  likely  to  do — an  immense 
change  must  gradually  take  place  in  the 
Muhammadanism  of  India.  In  no  other  country 
will  Islam  assume  a  similar  form,  at  least  for 
many  years  to  come.  Christian  missionaries 
ought  to  be  aware  of  the  present  critical 
position  of  affairs.  The  unrest  and  agitation 
among  Muhammadans  in  India  are  certain  to 
increase.  Missions,  I  am  persuaded,  ought  to 
pay  a  larger  proportional  attention  to  Muham- 
madans than  they  have  yet  done.  Yes,  let 
them  more  earnestly  hold  up  before  the  eye  of 
the  distracted  Moslem  the  great  commanding 
form  of  Him  who  said,  "  I  am  the  light  of  the 
world." 

It  is  a  solemn  fact  that  Islam  is  still  advanc- 
ing in  India  and  elsewhere.  The  command  of 
the  Quran  to  fight  for  the  extension  of  the 
faith  is  held  to  be  still  binding.  In  some  parts 
of  Africa  war  is  probably  always  going  on ;  only 
when  obedience  to  the  command  would  involve 

1  It  has  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Motazalite 
heresy  which  arose  in  the  time  of  the  Caliph  Al-Mamun. 


MUHAMMADANISM  241 

a  conflict  with  any  great  European  power,  the 
risk  is  seldom  run. 

Scattered  over  the  Muhammadan  world,  how- 
ever, there  are  religious  orders,  corresponding 
to  the  monastic  orders  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
which  exercise  immense  power  over  the  people. 
Some  of  these  date  from  the  time  of 
Muhammad  himself.  There  are  eighty-eight 
of  them  in  all,  and  new  fraternities  continue  to 
be  formed.  By  far  the  most  formidable  of 
these  bodies  is  the  Sanusiyah  Order,  founded 
by  Ali  bin  Sanusi  in  1791.1  Since  then  it  has 
spread  very  rapidly;  and  the  Sanusis  them- 
selves boast  of  now  being  eight  millions  of 
men.  They  are  bitterly  opposed  to  Christians 
and  the  extension  of  Christian  power.  But 
meantime  Russia  has  extinguished  the  khanates 
in  Central  Asia,  and  Britain  has  seized  on 
Aden;  in  Africa  France  rules  Algeria  and 
controls  Morocco;  Britain  controls  Egypt  and 
much  of  the  Soudan,  and  Italy  and  Germany  have 
claimed  portions  of  the  true  believers'  territory. 
All  this  the  Sanusis  most  deeply  resent. 

They  have  chosen  a  region  in  the  Libyan 

desert  between  Egypt  and  Tripoli,  about  400 

miles  inland.     They  have  a  college,  a  fortress, 

1  Some  say  1837. 

Q 


242  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

a  monastery  with  a  mosque,  and  many  fine  build- 
ings connected  with  it.  The  cloud  is  steadily 
gathering.  These  men  are  thoroughly  in 
earnest ;  and  although  as  yet  they  have  hesi- 
tated to  measure  swords  with  Europe,  it  seems 
hardly  possible  that  the  conflict  can  be  long 
delayed.  Let  our  politicians  look  to  it !  The 
danger  is  very  real.  The  cloud  may  any  day 
burst  in  lightning  and  tempest  over  Asia, 
Africa,  and  even  Europe. 

But  it  may  be  asked  why  the  Moslems 
should  not  gradually  become  civilised.  We 
may  probably  be  reminded  of  Spain  and  the 
civilization  of  the  Moors.  We  may  be  told 
also  that  France  has  done  really  a  great  work 
in  Algeria,  and  that  Britain  expects  to  do 
the  same  in  Egypt.  Well,  let  us  hope.  But 
meantime  let  us  remember  that  the  measure 
of  culture  which  Muhammadan  Spain  possessed 
never  grew  out  of  Islam,  but  was  rather  a 
reaction  against  it.  The  one  great  philosopher 
whom  the  Spanish  Muhammadans  produced, 
Averroes  (as  his  name  was  Latinised),  broke 
away  from  the  Quran,  was  excommunicated 
and  banished.  To  expect  that  Muhammadans 
will  become  truly  civilised  is  to  expect  that 
they  will  cease  to  be  Muhammadans. 


MUHAMMADANISM  243 

What,  then,  of  the  future  of  Muhammadanism  ? 
Two  hundred  millions — an  eighth  part  of  the 
human  race — are  at  present  under  its  sway ; 
how  long  is  that  iron  sway  likely  to  endure  ? 

Mr  Bryce,  M.P.,  who  is  a  diligent  student 
of  history,  has  said,  if  I  mistake  not,  that 
Muhammadanism  will  probably  pass  away  in 
two  hundred  years.  The  question  is  large 
and  complex;  and,  even  if  I  had  power  to 
grapple  with  it,  no  space  remains  to  do  so. 
But  I  venture  to  say  a  few  words  regarding 
the  probable  duration  of  Muhammadanism  in 
India. 

Of  course  it  can  no  longer  be  extended  by 
the  sword  or  by  such  merciless  tyranny  as  was 
exercised  under  Aurangzib  or  Tippoo  Sultan. 
Nor  will  the  great  body  of  Muhammadans  in 
India  remain  the  same  hard,  harsh,  repellent 
mass  as  it  has  been  hitherto.  It  will  share 
more  and  more  in  the  general  education  of 
India ;  and  bitter  prejudices,  grounded  on 
sheer  ignorance,  will  gradually  be  mitigated 
or  removed.  Muhammadan  intolerance  will 
gradually,  but  perhaps  very  slowly,  die  out  in 
India. 

Still  ampler  results  may  be  expected  in  the 
case  of  the  well-educated  Muhammadans.  It 


244  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

is  probable  that  they  will  continue  to  take 
pride,  in  a  certain  sense  and  degree,  in 
Muhammad  as  one  of  the  great  names  in 
history.  They  will  class  him  with  such 
illustrious  men  as  Alexander  of  Macedon  or 
Julius  Caesar.  But  that  they  should  continue 
to  believe  in  his  apostolate,  is  inconceivable. 
There  are  many  subjects  on  which  every  truly 
educated  man  must  vehemently  reject  the 
teachings  of  the  Quran — for  example,  its  per- 
mission of  polygamy,  divorce  at  the  husband's 
pleasure,  slavery,  and  the  propagation  of  the 
faith  by  the  sword. 

Under  the  sway  of  Islam  a  vast  mass  of 
mind  has  been  lying,  we  may  say,  for  ages  spell- 
bound. When  restored  to  light  and  liberty 
it  will  contribute  its  share  to  the  progress 
of  human  knowledge,  and  on  certain  subjects 
may  enter  into  rivalry  with  the  European 
mind.  Such  men  are  certain  to  be  anathe- 
matised from  Mecca,  as  Sir  Sayad  Ahmad  has 
been  ;  but  the  ban  will  lie  lightly  on  them,  and 
perhaps  be  accepted  as  a  certificate  of  merit. 

On  the  whole,  then,  I  am  full  of  hope  in 
regard  to  Indian  Muhammadanism.  That  hope 
is  grounded  on  two  suppositions.  First,  that 
Divine  Providence  will  permit  the  British 


MUHAMMADANISM  245 

suzerainty  still  to  endure  ;  and  secondly,  that 
the  missions  in  India  will  be  full  of  sympathy 
and  exercise  no  small  patience  with  the 
Muhammadan  mind,  as  it  gradually  dis- 
entangles itself  from  the  deep  prejudices  of 
ages.  Let  all  Christian  controversy  be  kindly 
in  spirit. 

Of  the  future  of  Muhammadanism  elsewhere 
we  can  say  little.  Turkey,  as  long  as  it  is 
allowed  to  last,  will  probably  remain  what  it 
has  been  all  along,  grossly  bigoted  and  cruel. 
The  "  third  great  Canning,"  as  Tennyson  called 
Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  "  the  great  Elchi  " 
(ambassador),  as  both  Turks  and  Christians 
named  him,  used  these  words :  "  As  a  matter 
of  humanity  I  wish  with  all  my  soul  that  the 
Sultan  were  driven,  bag  and  baggage,  into  the 
heart  of  Asia."  Eighty  years  and  more  have 
passed  since  these  words  were  used,  and  fresh 
horrors  have  been  enacted  by  the  Turk.  But 
the  time  must  come  for  his  leaving;  and  when 
it  does,  we  shall  all  heartily  "  speed  the  parting 
guest." 

We  see  no  prospect  of  internal  reform  in 
Persia. 

Even  so  in  other  lands  there  appears  no  hope  of 
improvement.  Muhammadan  states  now  every- 


246  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

where  feel  European  powers  pressing  in  upon 
them.  I  believe  the  uniform  idea  of  Moslems 
is  that  they  must  not  languish  to  extinction, 
like  a  sick  man  taking  to  his  bed  and  quietly 
yielding  up  the  ghost.  He  does  not  acknowledge 
he  is  now  about  to  die ;  but  when  that  time 
does  come,  the  Moslem  will  probably  fling  his 
whole  remaining  strength  into  one  supreme 
effort  and  perish  sword  in  hand. 

NOTE    ON    MUHAMMADANISM 

The  Shiah  Muhammadans  assert  that  ten 
sections — about  one  -  fourth  part  of  the 
whole — were  struck  out  of  the  Quran  by 
Othman.  Yet  on  the  whole  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  book  stands  now  nearly  as 
Muhammad  left  it.  The  arrangement  of  the 
chapters  was  not  made  by  Muhammad.  But 
in  truth,  although  probably  every  verse  is 
genuine,  yet  the  book  itself  is  a  perfect  chaos, 
not  the  slightest  attention  to  chronology  having 
been  paid  in  the  arrangement  of  the  chapters. 
Many  of  those  which  should  have  stood  at  the 
beginning  have  been  thrown  to  the  end  of  the 
book.  These  are  among  the  best  parts  of  the 
book. 


MUHAMMADANISM  247 

Muhammadan  theologians  speak  of  two  kinds 
of  inspiration — a  higher  and  a  lower — wahi 
and  ilham.  The  inspiration  of  the  Quran  is 
wahi.  Its  words  are  held  to  be  in  the  strictest 
sense  the  words  of  God. 

It  seems  to  be  taken  for  granted  by  some 
writers  that  the  Quran  alone  is  the  rule  of 
faith.  This  is  a  serious  mistake.  There  are 
four  "pillars"  of  Islam:  (i)  the  Quran;  (2) 
the  traditions  regarding  the  sayings  and  doings 
of  Muhammad  ;  (3)  the  unanimous  consent  of 
the  learned  doctors ;  and  (4)  analogical  reason- 
ing of  the  learned  as  to  the  precepts  and 
practice  of  the  Prophet. 

One  great  division  of  the  Muhammadans 
claims  the  title  of  Sunni  or  traditionists. 
There  are  six  standard  collections  of  the  tradi- 
tions they  accept.  The  Shiahs  reject  all  of 
these,  and  substitute  five  other  collections  of 
their  own. 

The  most  famous  collection  of  Sunni 
traditions  is  that  of  Bukhari;  but  it  was  not 
compiled  for  fully  two  centuries  after  the  death 
of  Muhammad.  Out  of  an  immense  number 
which  Bukhari  selected,  7275  are  probably 
authentic.  But  oral  traditions  may  change 
immensely  in  the  course  of  two  centuries. 


248  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

There  are  several  points  in  which  the  teach- 
ing of  Muhammad  himself  greatly  differs  from 
that  of  his  followers. 

1 .  In  the  Quran  the  sinful  acts  of  many  of 
the  prophets  are  mentioned;    and    in  several 
passages   Muhammad   is   commanded    to    ask 
pardon  for  his  personal  sins. 

But  his  followers — at  least  in  India — contend 
that  Muhammad  was  sinless. 

2.  Muhammad    himself,     in    his    frequent 
references  to  the  Scriptures,  both  Jewish  and 
Christian,  uses  language  of  the  highest  possible 
reverence. 

His  followers,  on  the  contrary,  have  brought 
various  accusations  against  them.  Some 
assert  that  the  true  Scriptures  have  been 
lost.  Others  maintain  that  they  have  been 
abrogated  or  set  aside.  And  others  assert 
that  they  have  been  corrupted  by  the  Christians, 
that  is,  that  the  true  text  has  been  designedly 
set  aside. 

SUFIISM 

A  few  words  must  be  said  about  Sufiism. 
The  word  may  be  derived  from  the  Greek 
credos,  wise ;  though  the  Muhammadans  do 
not  generally  admit  this. 


MUHAMMAD  AN  ISM  249 

Sufiism  is  mysticism,  ready  to  pass  into 
pantheism;  it  probably  has  been  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  the  Vedanta,  or  pantheistic  philo- 
sophy of  India. 

It  holds  that  the  great  duty  of  the  human 
soul  is  to  go  in  quest  of  God. 

It  must  begin  with  service,  then  it  rises  to 
love ;  next  to  seclusion,  in  which  it  thinks  only 
of  God ;  the  fourth  attainment  is  knowledge ; 
the  fifth,  ecstasy;  the  sixth,  truth;  the  seventh, 
union  with  God  •  the  last,  extinction. 

Many  of  the  Sufis  are  thoroughly  in  earnest, 
and  deserve  our  deepest  sympathy. 

CONTROVERSY  ON  MUHAMMADANISM 

More  than  two  centuries  ago,  Marracci,  who 
translated  the  Quran  into  Latin,  complained 
thus  :  Contra  Mahometum  qui  scripserunt  sive 
ex  antiquioribus  sive  recentioribus  sunt  pauci, 
ne  dlcam  paucissimi. 

In  the  Eastern  Church  the  most  distinguished 
opponent  of  Islam  was  Joannes  Damascenus  in 
the  eighth  century.  Another  was  Enthymues 
Zigabenus,  who  died  in  1 1 1 8. 

One  of  the  famous  "  Aberdeen  doctors," 
John  Forbes  of  Corse,  in  1646  devoted  to  the 


25o  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

subject  of  Muhammadanism  one  book  of  his 
work  "  Instructiones  Historico-Theologicas." 

Among  the  opponents  of  Muhammadanism 
none  deserves  a  higher  place  than  Raymond 
Lull  or  Lully.  He  was  distinguished  both  in 
science  and  philosophy.  He  became  a  most 
enthusiastic  missionary  to  the  Muhammadans 
and  died  a  martyr's  death.  In  1311  he  pro- 
posed at  the  Council  of  Vienna  that  missionary 
colleges  should  be  established  in  the  Universities 
of  Paris,  Salamanca,  and  Oxford.  Originally 
the  professorships  of  Arabic  in  these  univer- 
sities were  missionary  professorships. 

Of  recent  works  those  of  Sir  William  Muir 
and  Dr  Sprenger — the  latter  in  German — will 
be  found  very  valuable. 


LECTURE  SIXTH 

THE    RELIGION    OF    THE    WILDER    RACES 

WHEN  the  Aryans,  or  Hindus,  entered  India 
from  across  the  Himalayas — probably  more 
than  4000  years  ago — the  land  was  no  doubt 
to  a  large  extent  covered  with  forests ;  but  it 
was  not  uninhabited.  The  Aryans  were  at 
once  brought  into  contact  with  a  race  which 
they  called  Dasyus,  and  which  they  scornfully 
described  as  "  black-skinned,"  "  noseless,"  "god- 
less," and  even  "speechless."  That  is  to  say, 
they  were  darker  than  the  white-skinned 
Aryans,  but  they  certainly  were  not  negroes ; 
they  had  noses,  though  not  high  Roman  noses ; 
they  were  not  "speechless";  nor  were  they 
"  godless,"  though  they  differed  from  the  Aryan 
invaders  in  speech  and  religion.  Battles  ensued  ; 
those  of  the  aborigines  who  would  not  yield  to 
the  invaders  were  by  and  by  driven  off  into 
the  wilder  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  rest 
were  trampled  down  into  slavery. 

951 


252  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

These  last  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  "Hill 
and  Forest  races,"  though  that  designation 
hardly  befits  those  who  yielded  to  the  invader 
and  remained  in  their  old  seats. 

The  religion  of  these  races  may  generally 
be  described  as  Animism.  This  name  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  Animus ,  i.e.  spirit  or  soul. 
Animism  is  Spirit-worship. 

It  is  very  widely  diffused,  especially  among 
the  Turanian,  or  Tartar,  races  who  are  also 
frequently  called  Dravidian.  Indeed,  the  belief 
in  spirits  seems  instinctive.  As  children,  I  sup- 
pose we  were  all  afraid  of  ghosts  and  believed 
in  witches  and  fairies;  and  even  when  this  has 
been  nominally  superseded  by  a  higher  system 
of  thought,  it  often  clings  to  the  mind  with 
amazing  tenacity. 

The  following  seven  characteristics,  generally 
though  not  universally,  belong  to  Animism : — 

1.  A  supreme,  or  at  least  superior,  Being  is 
acknowledged,  though  scarcely  worshipped. 

2.  Other    spirits    are    also    acknowledged, 
which  are  almost  all  malignant,  and  have  to  be 
propitiated. 

3.  Bloody  offerings  are  necessary,  as  at  least 
a  part  of  the  propitiation. 

4.  Wild  dances  are  performed  in  the  worship. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  253 

5.  Little    importance    is  attached    to    idols, 
temples,  or  priests. 

6.  Possession  by  spirits  is  believed  in. 

7.  Witchcraft  is  much  practised. 

These  characteristics  are  found  in  the 
religions  of  the  wilder  tribes  of  India. 

It  is  truly  saddening  to  see  how  powerfully 
the  darker  features  of  spirit-worship  have 
affected  the  minds  of  these  races  all  over  the 
country.  The  conception  of  a  great  and  good 
Being,  supreme  over  all  others,  seems  never 
absolutely  extinguished ;  but  in  many  cases  it 
becomes  so  vague,  so  shadowy,  that  careful 
inquirers  have  declared  they  could  discover  no 
trace  of  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the  belief  in 
malevolent  spirits  is  always  distinct  and  strong. 
But  often — nay  usually — a  great  and  good 
divinity  is  believed  in.  He  is  connected, 
generally,  either  with  the  sun  or  the  moon. 
The  multitude  of  stars  around  them  is  often 
understood  to  be  the  offspring  of  these  two 
parents;  though  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that 
this  childish  thought  can  be  retained  by  grown 
up  men,  even  among  savages. 

I  have  mentioned  that  the  Supreme  Being, 
though  acknowledged,  is  scarcely  worshipped. 
Perhaps  rarely  worshipped  would  be  a  more 


254  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

accurate  expression;  for  at  distant  intervals, 
offerings  of  white  fowls  or  white  goats  seem 
to  be  made  to  him.  But  evil  spirits — demons 
— are  everywhere  and  always  near  us ;  demons 
of  the  waters,  demons  of  the  mountains, 
demons  of  the  woods,  demons  of  the  house, 
etc.,  etc.  The  spirits  of  the  dead  are  also  at 
hand.  All  of  these  beings  are  powerful, 
jealous,  sensitive,  revengeful;  and  they  are 
objects  of  unmitigated  terror. 

This  universal  belief  in  the  presence  and 
operation  of  evil  powers — whence  comes  it? 
It  has  been  traced  to  the  influence  of  the 
position  and  circumstances  of  these  poor 
people.  The  aborigines  of  India  have  for 
ages  had  a  hard  struggle  for  existence.  De- 
vastating floods,  blighting  droughts,  tempests 
and  whirlwinds  far  more  destructive  than  any 
we  experience  in  Europe ;  pestilences — whence 
come  these  fearful  things?  Who  sends  the 
wild  beasts,  tigers,  serpents,  and  all  the  rest, 
that  fill  the  forest  ?  And  who  sends  the  still 
more  cruel  men  that  seem  ever  on  the  watch 
to  rob  and  even  slay  ?  It  is  not  the  doing  of 
God.  He  is  good,  and  would  never  so  deal 
with  men.  But  fiends  are  all  around — bent 
on  mischief,  with  or  without  excuse.  But 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  255 

why  does  God  permit  them?  Ah!  who 
can  tell?  He  may  be  very  far  away,  and 
probably  does  not  know.  Anyhow,  the  fiends 
must  be,  if  possible,  appeased.  Worship  thus 
among  the  aborigines  is  the  dictate  simply  of 
fear.  So  men  worship  the  tiger  and  the 
serpent. 

Surely,  if  the  nations  of  the  West  believed 
in  a  religion  like  this,  existence  would  become 
an  intolerable  burden,  and  suicide  almost 
universal.  How  then  can  the  poor  aborigines 
of  India  bear  up  under  it  ? 

Most  of  them  are  by  constitution  cheerful, 
with  little  tendency  to  reflect,  and  with  a 
childish  carelessness  about  the  future.  When 
the  sun  shines  cheerily,  and  food  is  plentiful, 
the  poor  natives  are  happy.  Some  of  them— 
like  the  Santals  and  Uraons — are  fond  of 
music  and  dancing.  And  most,  or  alas !  all  of 
them,  are  ready  to  seek  refuge  from  their 
calamities  in  drinking.  But  taking  everything 
into  account,  their  demonolatry  presses  upon 
them  like  a  dreadful  nightmare.  A  missionary 
once  said  that  the  belief  reminded  him  of 
Milton's  words — 

"  Millions  of  spiritual  creatures  walk  the  earth 
Unseen,  both  when  we  sleep  and  when  we  wake." 


256  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Yes,  but  what  an  agonising  difference  between 
the  Native  idea,  and  Milton's  high  conception 
of  innumerable  hosts  in  earth  and  heaven — 

"  Sole,  or  responsive  each  to  other's  note, 
Singing  their  great  Creator  "  ; 

and  in  this  high  employment  resting  not  day 
or  night. 

I  am  reminded  of  an  incident  that  occurred 
in  an  old  ruinous  fort  in  Western  India. 
Through  a  break  in  the  seaward  wall  the 
breeze  was  beginning  to  play ;  and,  tired  with 
early  work,  I  was  resting  quietly.  A  respect- 
able-looking Native  begged  permission  to  speak 
to  me:  he  had  something  to  ask.  "By  all 
means  speak,"  I  said.  "Well,"  said  he,  "I 
am  astonished  that  you  remain  in  this  dreadful 
place,  with  only  two  attendants."  He  meant 
my  cook  and  my  horsekeeper.  u  What  is  the 
matter?"  I  asked.  uWhy,"  said  the  man, 
"  the  place  is  full  of  devils :  how  can  you  stay 
here  during  the  night  ?  "  "  Everything,"  I 
answered,  "  has  been  as  quiet  as  possible ;  if 
there  are  devils,  they  are  wonderfully  well- 
behaved  devils."  "  Ah ! "  said  the  man 
thoughtfully,  "you  are  a  European,  and  the 
devils  are  afraid  to  touch  you."  "Well,"  I 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  257 

said,  "but  my  cook  is  a  native  of  Goa,  and 
my  horsekeeper  is  a  Maratha;  and  then  my 
horse,  he  is  no  European.  Yet  none  of  us  has 
been  disturbed;  we  have  all  slept  quietly." 
"Ah!"  replied  the  Hindu,  "they  are  all 
under  your  protection,  and  the  devils  know  it." 

Of  course  on  so  good  a  text  I  preached  a 
little  sermon  to  the  man,  the  purport  of  which 
will  readily  occur  to  my  readers. 

It  was — if  my  memory  serves  me — very  near 
that  very  place  some  time  afterwards  that  the 
following  scene  was  enacted.  Let  it  be  re- 
membered that  such  startling  celebrations  are 
very  frequent  in  India. 

At  midnight  a  wild  chant  arose  outside  the 
fort,  funereal  in  its  tone.  One  voice  sang  a 
few  words;  and  then  a  multitude  joined  in 
chorus.  Then  came  an  invocation  uttered  by 
a  body  of  Mhars  (low-caste  people)  marching 
in  solemn  procession  into  the  fort,  and  inviting 
the  spirits  to  come  and  receive  the  offerings. 
These  consisted  of  pieces  of  flesh — probably 
that  of  a  kid — the  blood  of  which  had  been 
caught  in  a  dish  when  the  head  was  struck  off. 
There  were  also  bread  and  intoxicating  liquor, 
in  short,  plenty  of  the  food  generally  used  by 
the  Mhars  themselves,  along  with  sugar,  salt, 


258  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

spices,  opium  and  tobacco — all  borne  on  brass 
or  copper  vessels,  and  guarded  by  men  carrying 
naked  swords  and  flaming  torches.  The  en- 
trails of  the  animal  victims  were  wound  round 
the  necks  of  those  who  led  the  way.  Then 
arose  a  most  wild  and  unearthly  cry — an  in- 
vocation to  the  demons.  The  following  words 
were  shouted  aloud,  first  in  solo,  then  in 
chorus : 

Take  some  liver ! 
Eat  some  bread ! 
Taste  the  blood ! 

and  as  each  article  was  mentioned,  a  portion  of 
it  was  taken  from  the  dish  and  flung  forward 
— certain,  as  the  people  thought,  to  be  pursued 
and  caught  by  the  crowd  of  hungry  spirits  that 
were  eagerly  looking  on.  After  every  two  or 
three  sentences  the  whole  multitude  joined  in 
one  loud  shout — "  Be  propitious  !  "  l 

I  daresay  many  people  will  not  be  prepared 
to  learn  that  such  exhibitions  as  these  are  still 
common  in  India.  They  are  now  mainly  con- 
fined to  the  lowest  castes  among  the  Hindus 
and  to  the  aborigines — the  hill  and  forest 
races.  But  even  the  middle  and  higher  castes 
believe  that  every  wild  scene  in  nature  is 

1  See  "Chowchow,"  by  Lady  Falkland. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  259 

haunted — is  the  abode  of  a  spirit,  which  is 
almost  certain  to  be  malignant.  And  we  must 
recollect  that  such  was  once  the  belief  of  our 
own  people.  If  I  remember  aright,  the  old 
English  traveller  Sir  John  Mandeville  very 
seldom  refers  to  any  place  that  is  dark  and 
gloomy  or  otherwise  unattractive,  but  he  adds : 
"  And  the  whole  place  is  full  of  devils." 

I  have  been  speaking  of  India ;  but  it  is 
well  to  remember  that  animism  is  the  religion 
of  the  Tartar  races  generally,  and  that  also  in 
many  particulars  the  African  religions  are  the 
same.  Thus  Livingstone  says  :  "  The  Africans 
acknowledge  the  Deity,  but  they  hardly  pray 
to  Him.  .  .  .  They  ascribe  everything  above 
human  agency  to  unseen  spirits."  Livingstone 
also  tells  us  that  the  slave,  groaning  under  the 
tyranny  of  his  master,  exults  in  the  belief  that 
when  he  himself  dies  he  will  return  to  torment 
or  kill  his  merciless  oppressor.  Among  our 
Wild  India  races,  however,  the  idea  of  a 
future  state  is  generally  very  vague  and 
shadowy. 

The  Shanars  in  Southern  India  are  among 
the  most  interesting  of  the  aboriginal  races. 
They  amount  to  about  half  a  million  They 
retain  an  indistinct  belief  in  a  great  Being 


260  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

whom  they  call  Ruler  or  Lord.  They  hardly 
admit,  however,  that  the  world  was  created  by 
Him,  and  think  that,  if  He  governs  it,  His  rule 
is  very  lax.  But  they  fully  believe  in  the 
existence  and  agency  of  spirits.  These  are 
watchful,  jealous  and  revengeful,  able  and 
willing  to  punish  all  who  offend  them.  They 
are  especially  propitiated  by  bloody  sacrifices 
and  wild  dances. 

When  a  dance  is  to  take  place  a  person 
must  be  chosen  to  enact  the  chief  part  of  the 
ceremony,  since  there  is  no  regular  priesthood 
appointed  to  celebrate  their  worship.  This 
chief  performer  may  be  either  a  man  or  a 
woman.  First,  a  suitable  dress  must  be  put 
on :  it  is  many-coloured,  frightfully  grotesque, 
with  a  multitude  of  small  jingling  bells. 
Drums  horns,  clarionets,  cymbals,  are  also 
introduced — more  bells,  and  bells  of  all  different 
sizes,  and  all  sounding  together,  until  there  is 
a  perfect  roar  of  noise,  enough  to  satisfy  the 
ears  of  the  most  exacting  demon.  At  first,  the 
dance  is  slow,  and  the  accompanying  music 
is  comparatively  gentle.  But  the  strain  be- 
comes quicker,  louder,  and  the.  dancer  be- 
comes more  and  more  excited.  He  now  drinks 
a  quantity  of  intoxicating  liquor,  lashes  him- 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  261 

self  with  a  whip,  cuts  his  flesh  till  the  blood 
flows,  and  more  dreadful  still,  drinks  the  blood 
of  a  decapitated  kid.  Now  starting  into  fresh 
life,  he  flourishes  his  bells  and  ..dances  round 
and  round,  moving  quick,  but  almost  stagger- 
ing as  if  in  the  grasp  of  some  oppressive 
power.  Then  suddenly  he  becomes  inspired. 
He  stares  as  if  his  eyes  would  start  from  their 
sockets,  and  whirls  wildly  round  and  round. 
Now  the  spirit  has  entered  him,  and  he  is 
wholly  under  the  demon's  power.  Ask  his 
name,  and  he  gives  the  demon's  name ;  his 
consciousness  is  entirely  merged  in  that  of  the 
spirit.  Now  all  around  are  eager  to  put 
questions.  They  ask  about  their  children, 
their  crops,  their  cattle,  and  whatever  interests 
them  most  deeply.  Answers  are  grunted 
out. 

These  terrible  orgies  are  usually  celebrated 
during  the  night.  The  sacred  stillness  of  those 
glorious  Indian  evenings  is  suddenly  broken  in 
on  by  a  hideous  uproar — the  beat  of  drums, 
the  bray  of  horns,  the  clash  of  cymbals — a 
disturbance  utterly  out  of  keeping  with  the 
deep  calm  of  nature,  and  doubly  distressing 
when  we  remember  by  what  it  is  to  be  accom- 
panied. 


262  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

Bloody  offerings  are  a  necessary  part  of  this 
worship.  Goats,  sheep,  and  fowls — these  are 
especially  used.  The  goat  or  sheep  is  led  to 
the  altar,  adorned  with  red  ochre  and  garlands 
of  flowers.  A  single  stroke  with  a  sharp  knife 
severs  the  head  from  the  body ;  if  two  blows 
are  required,  the  sacrifice  is  not  deemed  accept- 
able. The  blood  is  poured  out  on  the  altar. 
The  body  of  the  animal  is  cooked,  and,  after 
being  offered  to  the  demon,  it  forms  part  of  a 
sacred  feast  which  is  shared  by  all  who  have 
joined  in  the  celebration. 

It  is  of  importance  to  note  that  in  these  obser- 
vances no  reference  is  made  to  sin.  The  object 
is  to  appease  the  wrath  of  the  demon,  which 
arises  from  his  having  been  too  much  over- 
looked, not  from  the  commission  of  any  moral 
offence.  There  is,  however,  also  the  idea  of 
substitution.  The  sacrifices  are  very  frequently 
offered  in  cases  of  sickness ;  and  the  demon  is 
implored  to  accept  the  life  of  an  animal  instead 
of  that  of  a  human  being. 

Childish  superstition  is  rife  among  all  classes 
in  India — rifest  among  the  lowest.  Thus  in  the 
dusk  of  the  evening  the  demons  are  often  sup- 
posed to  be  seen,  especially  in  burning  or  burial 
grounds.  They  assume  grotesque  or  dreadful 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  263 

shapes,  often  changing  these  in  succession.  Or 
a  sudden  noise  is  heard.  The  people  venture 
to  look,  and  lo !  there  is  the  demon  running  off 
like  a  big  dog,  or  perhaps  like  a  cat,  with  eyes 
flaming  like  lamps.  Or  the  demons  are  seen 
gliding  over  marshy  ground,  in  the  shape  of  an 
ignis  fatuus.  Small  whirlwinds  of  dust  are  very 
common  in  the  dry  season :  these  move  above 
and  catch  up  dry  leaves  and  straws  and  carry 
them  up  into  the  air.  This  is  a  mild  form  of 
the  demon's  play.  Everything  at  all  unusual  is 
an  indication  of  the  presence  and  action  of  a 
dark  unearthly  being. 

The  temples  of  the  demons  are  very  poor 
erections.  A  heap  of  earth  is  raised  in  the 
form  of  a  small  pyramid,  from  five  to  eight  feet 
high ;  it  is  ornamented  with  alternate  streaks 
of  red  and  white  paint.  This  is  both  the 
dwelling  and  the  image  of  the  demon ;  at  least 
there  is  generally  no  other  image.  A  small 
heap  of  earth  in  front  of  this,  flat  on  the  top, 
forms  the  altar.  In  some  cases  the  erection  is 
of  earth  and  overlaid  with  stucco. 

Occasionally  one  of  the  lower  Hindu  gods, 
or  probably  a  goddess,  has  been  accepted  by 
the  aborigines.  In  such  cases  a  regular  image 
is  erected.  It  is  generally  of  earthenware 


164  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

painted  white,  in  order  to  render  it  more  strik- 
ing and  ghastly.  It  has  many  hands,  each 
holding  some  instrument  of  torture,  and  with  a 
horrible  mouth,  the  teeth  of  which  are  crushing 
an  infant — or  more  than  one — to  death.  In 
other  cases,  the  image — when  there  is  an  image 
— probably  has  a  buffalo's  head,  and  the  hands 
grasp  a  huge  club.  Near  the  temple  there 
generally  stands  a  tree — the  larger  the  better 
— and  if  so,  there  will  be  the  demon's  dwelling 
place.  From  this  the  demon  beholds  the 
sacrifice  ;  he  snuffs  with  delight  the  odour  of 
the  flowing  blood,  and  eagerly  descends  from 
the  tree  to  share  with  the  worshippers  in  the 
banquet  that  succeeds  the  sacrifice. 

But  the  demons  have  many  places  of  abode. 
Any  place  or  thing  that  is  fitted  to  inspire 
terror  or  disgust  is  almost  certainly  the  abode 
of  a  demon.  Gloomy  shades,  dark  valleys, 
ruinous  houses,  solitary  wastes — these  are 
their  chosen  dwelling  places.  They  roam 
abroad  in  the  darkness ;  they  are  at  work  in 
the  devastating  gale,  or  the  wild  rushing  flood ; 
it  is  they  that  "  ride  in  the  whirlwind  and  direct 
the  storm,"  and,  when  the  tempest  roars  in  fury 
it  is  the  shriek  and  howl  of  the  demons  which 
you  hear. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  265 

All  spirit-worshippers  firmly  believe  in 
possession  by  devils.  Any  unusual  disease,  and 
any  usual  one  which  does  not  yield  to  the 
ordinary  remedies,  is  ascribed  to  the  presence 
of  a  demon.  But  he  can  be  expelled  from  the 
human  body ;  and  there  are  many  approved 
modes  of  exorcism.  If  these  fail,  a  sound 
drubbing  with  shoe  or  stick,  accompanied  by 
torrents  of  foul  abuse  is  almost  always  more 
than  the  most  determined  demon  can  stand. 
"I  am  going,"  cries  a  strange  voice.  The 
people  cease  beating,  and  ask  his  name,  and 
the  reason  of  his  visit.  He  says  he  is  such 
and  such  a  demon,  to  whom  they  have,  for  a 
long  time,  paid  no  proper  respect;  and  they 
must  give  him  an  offering.  Or  perhaps  he  says 
he  is  some  deceased  relative  who  has  become 
a  demon  and  must  be  gratified  by  a  present. 
When  the  sacrifice  and  the  sacrificial  feast  are 
prepared,  the  possessed  man  partakes  and  then 
awakes  as  from  deep  sleep  or  stupor,  but 
professes  to  have  no  knowledge  of  what  has 
taken  place  while  the  spirit  was  in  him. 

You  are  ready,  I  suppose,  to  call  this  professed 
ignorance  only  sheer  pretence.  But  it  is  not 
always  pretence.  The  man  firmly  believes  in 
possession ;  and  his  imagination  readily  admits 


266   THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

the  idea  that  his  strange  feelings  are  occasioned 
by  a  demon's  presence.  There  are  many 
people,  not  particularly  credulous,  who  would 
hesitate  to  say  there  are  no  real  cases  of 
possession  in  India.  For  myself,  I  am  at  a 
loss — though  I  confess  that  all  the  cases  that 
came  under  my  observation  might  be  explained 
either  as  cases  of  hypocrisy  or  of  self-deception 
— generally  the  latter. 

It  is  exceedingly  probable,  that  among  the 
Dravidian  or  Turanian  races,  human  sacrifice 
was  formerly  far  from  uncommon.  Even  to 
our  own  day  it  prevailed  to  a  deplorable  extent 
among  the  Khonds  (Kandhs),  in  the  mountainous 
part  of  Orissa.  It  was  in  the  year  1837  that 
the  British  came  to  know  that  a  regular  system 
of  human  sacrifice  existed  there — some  offered 
by  the  community,  some  by  individuals  on 
their  own  account.  Good  crops  and  immunity 
from  disease  were  held  by  the  Khonds  to  be 
dependent  on  the  awful  rite.  They  did  not 
knowingly  offer  either  a  Khond  or  a  Brahman ; 
but,  with  these  two  exceptions,  any  man, 
woman,  or  child  might  be  the  victim. 

The  news  was  very  startling ;  and  Govern- 
ment at  once  appointed  Captain  John  Campbell 
to  investigate  the  matter,  with  full  powers  to 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  267 

take  steps  to  crush  out  the  horrid  practice. 
The  book  this  officer  wrote  is  before  me  as 
I  write,  and  I  simply  abridge  his  distressing 
statement. 

"The  victims  were  offered  to  the  earth- 
goddess  Tari.  They  were  generally  procured 
from  a  distance.  They  might  be  either  stolen 
or  purchased.  They  were  generally  young 
people.  They  were  brought  up  into  the  hills, 
and  were  treated — perhaps  for  years — with 
much  kindness,  bearing  as  they  did  an  almost 
sacred  character.  Their  fate  was  never  men- 
tioned to  them.  But  by  and  by  came  the 
great  celebration.  A  vast  assembly  was  held 
for  three  days  and  given  up  to  feasting  and 
riot  and  wild  dances.  The  victim  was  brought 
forward — opium  or  some  intoxicating  drug 
having  rendered  him  insensible.  He  was 
anointed  with  oil,  ghee,  and  carmine,  and 
crowned  with  flowers.  Then  came  an  awful 
chaunt — a  liturgy,  horribly  sublime.  'You 
are  ours,'  they  shouted;  'we  have  bought 
you,  and  we  offer  you  to  the  goddess.'  The 
victim  must  die  without  a  struggle ;  and  to 
secure  this,  his  limbs  were  broken;  and  he 
was  generally  fixed  in  a  cleft  tree.  Each 
savage  then  rushed,  knife  in  hand,  upon  him, 


268    THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

cut  off  a  morsel  of  his  flesh,  and  bore  it  away, 
dripping  with  blood,  to  his  field  and  buried 
it  there, — each  saying,  i  The  goddess  has  now 
tasted  human  blood,  and  we  shall  have  crops 
in  plenty.'" 

It  is  calculated  that  the  number  of  these 
sacrifices  annually  was  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty.  Thank  God  ;  they  have  ceased  entirely. 

It  will  be  a  great  relief  if  we  now  turn  to 
speak  of  a  much  higher  tribe  of  aborigines. 
On  the  western  side  of  the  chain  of  mountains 
running  from  Cape  Comorin  to  the  northern 
borders  of  Travancore,  there  is  a  race,  number- 
ing about  eighteen  thousand  souls,  called 
generally  Hill  Arrians.  They  live  on  heights 
from  two  to  three  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea  level.  They  have  the  taste  to  select  the 
most  beautiful  spots  for  their  abode,  residing 
generally  in  fixed  villages.  Many  of  them 
are  well  off,  being  prosperous  cultivators  of 
the  slopes  of  the  hills ;  and  they  hold  a 
position  equal  to  that  of  Muhammadans — 
which  is  one  of  some  honour  in  that  region. 

When  in  Southern  India  I  was  deeply 
interested  in  hearing  that  these  Hill  Arrians 
had  sent  a  deputation  of  their  number  to  a 
C.M.S.  missionary  at  Cottayam,  on  the  plains, 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  269 

some  fifty  miles  distant,  with  a  pressing  re- 
quest that  he  would  set  up  schools  for  their 
children.  The  missionary's  hands  were  full, 
and  he  did  not  respond  to  their  request  until 
five  successive  deputations  had  been  sent. 
He  then  went  to  their  hills.  He  received  a 
most  hearty  welcome.  Arrangements  were 
made  for  their  instruction,  and  in  little  more 
than  two  years  a  hundred  and  twenty  asked 
for  baptism ;  and  soon  more  than  two 
thousand  had  been  baptised. 

The  most  peculiar  of  the  hill  tribes  is  found 
on  the  Blue  Mountains  (Nilgiris)  in  Southern 
India.  I  refer  to  the  Todas.1  Who  they 
originally  were,  or  where  they  came  from,  is 
a  perplexing  question.  Let  me  give  the 
answer  they  returned  to  me  when  I  asked 
them.  "  We  have  come  from  nowhere ;  our 
ancestors  were  created  on  these  hills,  and 
these  hills  belong  to  us." 

Physically  the  Todas  are  a  fine  race — tall, 
well-formed,  and  athletic.  The  women  are 
handsome  and  erect  and  would  be  pleasing  if 
they  had  the  gentleness  of  Hindu  women. 
Both  sexes  are  lively  and  laugh  merrily  on 

1  See  the  Rev.  Mr  Baker's  striking  account  given  in 
Mrs  Murray  Mitchell's  book.  "  In  Southern  India,"  p.  304. 


270  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

the  least  occasion.  They  are  occupied  almost 
exclusively  in  the  care  of  great  herds  of  cattle 
— buffaloes.  Men  and  women  dress  almost 
alike — wrapping,  themselves  in  large  blankets. 
Cleanliness  is  not  one  of  their  virtues;  they 
seem  never  to  wash  either  their  bodies  or 
their  clothes. 

Their  religion  is  a  mystery.  They  have  no 
images,  but  there  is  a  buffalo-bell  in  each 
village  to  which  libations  of  milk  are  made. 
Their  great  comprehensive  prayer — or  wish, 
rather — is  this — "May  all  be  well!  may  the 
buffaloes  be  well !  "  There  is  a  head  milkman 
who  may  be  called  a  kind  of  priest.  He  lives 
alone  with  one  attendant.  No  woman  can 
approach  the  place,  nor  any  man  without  ex- 
press permission.  Milking  is  a  sacred  work; 
and  only  this  man  can  perform  it.  He  places 
the  milk  in  the  dairy,  which  is  in  fact  their 
only  temple.  The  people  live  almost  exclusively 
on  milk,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  curd  and  ghee. 

One  weakness  of  the  Todas  is  their  love  of 
presents ;  and  they  are  shrewd  enough  to 
prefer  white  money  very  decidedly  to  black,  as 
visitors  soon  discover. 

I  have  now  to  speak  of  the  Karens  of 
Burma.  The  old  traveller  Marco  Polo  men- 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  271 

tions  them,  but  after  his  time  they  seem  to 
have  been  long  overlooked.  They  were  hardly 
heard  of  again  until  1828.  They  were  then 
living  among  the  mountains,  shunning  as  far 
as  possible  all  intercourse  with  the  Burmese, 
by  whom  they  had  long  been  most  cruelly 
treated. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  from  what  country  they 
came ;  but  it  was  probably  from  China.  Their 
traditions  mention  that  they  had  to  cross  a 
terrible  river  of  sand.  This  would  seem  to  be 
the  great  desert  of  Gobi,  which  remains  very 
formidable  to  travellers  up  to  this  day. 

The  American  Baptist  Mission  had  been  at 
work  among  the  Burmese  for  a  considerable 
time  before  they  particularly  noticed  the  wild 
people  dwelling  among  the  hills.  One  of  the 
first  converts  was  Ko  Tha  Byu.  A  Burman 
had  enslaved  him  on  account  of  debt,  but  Dr 
Judson  restored  him  to  freedom  and  employed 
him  as  a  water-carrier.  This  man  read  a 
Christian  tract  in  Burmese  and  was  struck 
with  the  resemblance  between  its  statements 
and  the  cherished  traditions  of  his  own  people. 
He  became  a  convert  and  a  preacher;  and 
through  him  the  missionaries  had  their  atten- 
tion called  to  a  field  of  labour  which  they  had 


272  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

hardly  thought  of,  but  which  has  proved  most 
fruitful. 

The  traditions  of  the  Karens  bear  a  remark- 
able likeness  to  many  of  the  statements  of  the 
Old  Testament.  The  resemblance  indeed  is 
startling.  Some  would  explain  the  coincidence 
by  supposing  that  either  in  their  original  home 
or  while  on  their  way  to  Burma  the  Karens 
came  in  contact  with  Nestorian  missionaries, 
who  during  the  Middle  Ages  played  so  noble  a 
part  in  the  heart  of  Asia,  and  right  away  into 
the  centre  of  China.  But  the  Karen  traditions, 
while  marvellously  like  many  things  in  the 
Old  Testament,  very  seldom  remind  us  of  the 
New ;  and  for  this  reason  the  Karens  are 
generally  supposed  to  have  drawn  them  from 
Jewish  sources.  Some  have  inferred  that  they 
are  really  of  Hebrew  origin.  They  certainly 
seem  to  have  been  in  close  contact  with  a 
Hebrew  race ;  and  we  know  that  there  were 
Jewish  colonies  in  China,  from  some  of  which 
we  may  suppose  that  the  Karens  derived  their 
venerable  traditions. 

They  do  not  worship  idols.  They  acknow- 
ledge one  great  God,  who,  they  say,  is  dis- 
pleased and  has  withdrawn  from  them  because 
they  lost  a  holy  book  which  He  once  gave 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  273 

them.  They  worship  Naths,  which  are  malig- 
nant spirits  ever  on  the  watch  to  do  them  harm 
if  they  fail  in  paying  them  due  respect. 

When  the  first  converts  saw  the  close 
resemblance  which  the  statements  of  the  Bible 
bore  to  their  own  traditions,  they  exclaimed  : 
"  These  white  foreigners  have  found  our  book 
and  have  brought  it  back  to  us."  The  preach- 
ing of  the  missionaries  was  therefore  sought 
rather  than  shunned.  In  little  more  than  two 
generations  about  a  hundred  thousand  became 
Christians,  and  conversions  still  appear  to 
be  multiplying  more  and  more  rapidly.  The 
entire  Karen  nation  numbers  about  a  million. 
Last  year  there  seem  to  have  been  baptised 
two  thousand  one  hundred  and  forty — all  of 
them  adults.  The  Church  members  amount  to 
thirty-five  thousand.  It  is  right  to  mention 
that  this  very  remarkable  work  among  the 
Karens  has  been  carried  on  mainly  by  the 
American  Baptists. 

During  the  wars  which  the  Indian  Govern- 
ment waged  with  Burma  (1852-1856)  the 
Karens  sided  with  the  British  against  their 
old  oppressors  the  Burmese.  English  officials 
were  disposed  at  first  to  deal  with  them  as  a 
weak  and  pithless  race  ;  but  the  Karens  turned 


174  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

out  to  be  vigorous,  energetic,  and  in  every 
way  trustworthy. 

Though  divided  into  three  sections,  they  all 
acknowledge  a  common  ancestry,  and  they  act 
together  without  difficulty. 

One  remarkable  thing  is  that  no  unkind 
feeling  exists  between  the  converts  and  the 
heathen  Karens.  An  old  heathen  Karen  will 
say:  "I  am  too  old  to  change  my  life,  but  my 
children  will  be  Christians."  How  unlike  is 
this  to  the  dreadful  caste  feeling  that  prevails 
among  the  Hindus ! 

Education  has  also  spread  among  them  to  a 
considerable  extent;  and  there  are  Karen 
students  connected  with  the  University  of 
Calcutta. 

In  the  great  work  of  bringing  in  the  wilder 
races  I  am  glad  to  say  that  England,  Wales, 
Scotland,  America  and  Germany  all  have  a 
share.  Space  fails ;  otherwise,  I  could  supply 
very  encouraging  statistics  in  this  connection. 

England,  specially  through  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  is  working  diligently 
among  the  Santals,  Bhils,  Gonds,  Kois,  and 
others. 

Wales,  i.e.  the  Welsh  Presbyterian  Mission, 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  275 

has  been  diligent  and  successful  among  the 
hill  tribes  of  Assam,  the  Khasis,  etc. 

Scotland  is  engaged  with  the  Lepchas,  the 
Santals,  and  the  Bhils.  The  Mission  with 
which  I  am  best  acquainted  is  that  among  the 
Santals.  It  does  not  seem  long  since  the  work 
was  begun ;  but  had  I  been  told  thirty  years 
ago  that  I  should  live  to  see  its  present  state 
of  advancement,  I  would  have  answered — "I 
hope  to  see  it  from  heaven,  but  I  cannot 
expect  to  witness  such  progress  while  I  remain 
on  earth." 

Germany,  i.e.  The  Basel  Evangelical  Mission, 
works  among  the  Badagas  on  the  Nilgiris  and 
others. 

America,  especially  through  the  Baptist  Mis- 
sion, among  the  Karens. 

The  whole  body  of  these  aboriginal  races 
we  may  say  is  melting  away.  They  are  now 
only  about  eight  millions  and  a  half.  But  we 
must  not  think  that  all  the  conversions  are  to 
Christianity.  Some  are  absorbed  into  the 
great  mass  of  Hindus;  others  become  Muham- 
madans.  In  such  cases  conversion  to 
Christianity  becomes  doubly,  ay  trebly, 
difficult.  Our  work  among  the  aborigines 


276   THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

ought  to  be  extended  before  these  children 
of  the  wilderness  shall  have  passed  beyond  our 
reach. 

SANTALS. 

I  cannot  but  add  a  few  words  regarding  my 
personal  connection  with  this  interesting  tribe. 
I  met  in  Calcutta,  on  his  return  from  Europe, 
a  distinguished  civilian,  William, — afterwards 
Sir  William — Hunter.  He  well  remembered  his 
work  among  them,  and  was  full  of  a  beautiful 
enthusiasm  regarding  the  wild  people.  He 
kindled  a  deep  interest  in  my  mind  regarding 
them.  I  proposed  to  my  colleagues  to  start  a 
mission  among  them.  They  agreed  at  once. 
Then  I  wrote  home  to  Dr  Duff  and  the 
Foreign  Mission  Committee  in  Edinburgh, 
asking  permission  to  do  so.  The  answer  of 
the  Committee  was  :  "  Do  as  you  think  best ; 
but  our  funds  are  low,  and  we  can  give  you  no 
money."  I  preached  a  sermon  to  our  European 
congregation  on  the  proposed  effort ;  and  they 
gave  me  a  very  fair  collection.  I  proceeded 
to  Taljhari  in  the  Santal  country,  and  consulted 
the  Rev.  Mr  Storrs  of  the  C.M.S.  Mission, 
begging  him  to  supply  us  with  two  native 
Christians,  and  giving  him  at  the  same  time 


RELIGION  OF  THE  WILDER  RACES  277 

half  of  the  collection  I  had  got.  Mr  Storrs 
was  very  friendly  and  promised  to  do  his  best. 
He  found  he  could  supply  only  one  man — a 
simple  lad  who  could  teach  but  not  preach. 
I  have  a  very  distinct  recollection  of  this  lad 
working  away  in  a  shed  laboriously  trying  to 
teach  four  or  five  of  the  duller  Santals  the 
alphabet.  For  some  time  also  a  worthy  man — 
an  Indo-Briton — was  employed  to  preach ;  but 
by  and  by  there  came  from  Scotland  Dr 
Templeton  and  Mr  A.  Campbell.  Ere  long 
Dr  Templeton's  health  failed,  but  Dr  Dyer 
soon  worthily  filled  his  place;  Mr  Campbell, 
now  a  D.D.,  has  steadily  held  on  and  is 
honoured  as  a  patriarch  ;  and  worthy  associates 
have  joined  them. 

BHILS. 

A  very  interesting  matter  connected  with 
the  Bhils  is  mentioned  in  the  life  of  that  truly 
remarkable  man  Sir  James  Outram.  The 
Bhils  in  the  province  of  Khandesh  had  from  of 
old  been  incorrigible  marauders — ever  ready  to 
swoop  down  from  the  hills  on  their  civilised 
neighbours  in  the  plains.  The  Marathea 
Government  had  treated  them  as  wild  beasts, 
and  their  English  successors  had  been  almost 


278  THE  GREAT  RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA 

equally  merciless;  but  the  Bhils  remained  as 
wild  as  ever.  It  then  occurred  to  the  Governor 
of  Bombay — the  sagacious  Mountstuart  Elphin- 
stone — that  an  effort  should  be  made  to  reclaim 
them  by  gentle  means.  He  devised  two 
schemes — one  was  to  establish  agricultural 
settlements  of  Bhils,  and  the  other  to  organise 
a  battalion  of  Bhil  soldiers  under  a  British 
officer.  The  latter  object  Elphinstone  in- 
trusted to  the  care  of  Outram.  Outram,  with 
consummate  tact  and  temper,  entered  into  the 
governor's  plans ;  and  in  less  than  four  years 
the  province  of  Khandesh  was  completely 
pacified.  Rightly  did  Elphinstone's  successor 
— Sir  John  Malcolm — congratulate  Outram  on 
the  remarkable  combination  of  firmness,  kind- 
ness, and  perseverance  which  had  achieved  so 
important  a  result.  When  he  left  it,  the  Bhil 
corps  was  900  strong.  This  was  the  fit  com- 
mencement of  a  high  career  of  one  who  has 
been  rightly  styled  Sans  peur  et  sans  reproche. 


INDEX 


AGNI,  fire  god  of  the  Hindus, 

45,  54 

Agriculture    commended    in 

the  Avesta,  139,  143,  149 
Ahmad  (Sir  Sayad),  founder 

of  Aligarh  College,  239, 

244 
Ahuna   Vairya,  one   of  the 

three  great  prayers  in  the 

Avesta,  136 
Ahura     Mazda,    the     chief 

divinity  in  the  Avesta,  124, 

126,  136,  143,  145,  146, 

147,  149,  150,  170 
Alexander  of  Macedon,  112, 

115,  121,  140,  196 
Aligarh    College,     239-240 

and  n. 
American    Baptist    Mission, 

271,  275 

Amesha-Spentas,  "holy  im- 
mortals," 126,  129,   132, 

146 
Angro  Mainyus,  chief  of  the 

spirits  of  evil,  130,  146 
Animal  life,  sanctity  of,  in 

Buddhism,  191,  195, 197; 

in  Jainism,  205 
Animal  sacrifices,    53,    133, 

151,  152,  178,  257,  261, 

262  ;    influence    of   Bud- 


dhism on,  197,  198;  dis- 
appearance of,  63-64 
Animals     condemned,     139, 

M7»  J53»  J54. 

Animism  or  spirit  worship, 
the  religion  of  the  Hill 
and  Forest  tribes,  29,  252 

Arabs,  their  zeal  for  obtain- 
ing converts,  23,  229; 
they  invade  Persia,  20, 
113,  124;  overrun  great 
part  of  Europe,  232,  233 

Aranyakas  or  forest  treatises 
of  the  Hindus,  49 

Ardai  Viraf,  ParsI  priest, 
116 

Ardashir  Babegan,  ruler  of 
the  Persian  empire,  at- 
tempts the  restoration  of 
the  ancient  religion,  115, 
117;  endeavours  to  collect 
the  writings  of  Zoroastrian- 
ism,  121 

Ardvi  Sura  Anahit,  goddess 
of  waters,  128 

Arya  Samaj,  96,  107,  108 

Aryan  religion.  See  Hindu- 
ism 

Aryan  Society,  its  origin,  28 ; 
opposed  to  Christianity,  29 

Asceticism,  178,  206 

379 


280 


INDEX 


Ashem  Vohu,  prayer  in  the 

Avesta,  138 
Asoka,  Indian  ruler,  furthers 

the    cause   of    Buddhism, 

195-197 
Astronomy  of  the   Hindus, 

95 

Asvamedha  or  sacrifice  of 
the  horse  in  Hindu  wor- 
ship, 53 

Atharva  Veda,  summary  of 
its  contents,  50-51  and  n. ; 
on  the  doom  of  the  wicked, 

56 

Avatars,   or    incarnations   of 

Vishnu,  64 
Avesta  religion.     See  Zoro- 

astrianism 

BAPTISM,  its  value  and  neces- 
sity, 34»  99 

Basel  Evangelical  Mission, 
275 

Benares,  note  on  the  religious 
condition  of,  96 

Besant,  Mrs,  her  Theosophic 
College  at  Benares,  97 

Bhagavad-Gita  on  the  Su- 
preme Being,  79  ;  its  con- 
nection with  the  Bible, 
88-93 

Bhils,  29,  274,  275 ;  note 
on,  277 

Brahma,  92 

Brahma  Samaj,  27,  28,  77, 
98,  101,  102 

Brahmo  Samaj  of  India, 
103 

Brahmanas,  49,  63 


Brahmans,  teaching  on  the 
incarnation  of  Vishnu,  65  ; 
opposed  to  suppression  of 
the  burning  of  widows,  66  ; 
their  hatred  of  foreigners, 
196;  a  cultured  race,  198 

Buddhism,  date  of  its  origin, 
1 8  ;  receives  no  converts, 
21  ;  opposed  to  animal 
sacrifices,  64;  sketch  of 
the  life  of  its  founder,  175- 
185;  outline  of  his  teach- 
ing, 183-185;  the  philo- 
sophy of  suffering,  182, 
183,  186-187;  God  ex- 
cluded, 185  ;  the  nature 
of  man  according  to 
Buddha,  187;  the  doctrine 
of  good  and  evil,  187,  188; 
transmigration,  188-189; 
the  hope  of  Buddhism, 
189-190;  its  morality, 
191  ;  rules  for  the  monks, 
191  -  193  ;  prominence 
given  to  merit  and  medita- 
tion, 193  ;  an  Order  of 
Nuns,  193 ;  the  position 
of  women  under  Buddhism, 
194;  causes  which  helped 
its  success,  195-197;  the 
reason  of  its  decline,  198  ; 
tactics  employed  by  Brah- 
mans against  it,  65,  199; 
a  new  religion,  174,  200; 
as  it  exists  in  Japan  and 
Tibet,  202-204 

CAIRO  University,  239 
Campbell,  Dr  A.,  277 


INDEX 


281 


Campbell,  Captain  John,  his 
evidence  on  human  sacri- 
fices, 266-267 

Caste,  its  observances,  62  and 
n.;  an  illustration  of  its  laws, 
62,  63  ;  notes  on,  80,  190 

Chosroes  II.,  17 

Christianity,  progress  of,  in 
India,  26,  33  ;  introduced 
into  Persia,  117;  its  in- 
fluenceon  the  Pars! religion, 
163 

Converts,  reception  of,  by 
Muhammadanism  and 

Christianity,  23 

DAWN,  the,  worshipped  by 
the  Hindus,  46,  56 

Dayananda,  founder  of  the 
Aryan  Society,  28,  107 

Dead,  worship  of  the,  52  ; 
prayers  for  the  dead,  132; 
ceremonies  at  death,  135- 
136;  observances  con- 
nected with  death,  161 

Debendernath  Tagore,  a  re- 
former of  Hinduism,  102 

Demons,  worship  of,  5 1,  52  ; 
belief  in,  among  the  Forest 
and  Hill  tribes,  253-268 

Dogs  held  in  honour,  139, 

147,  154 

Du  Perron,  Anquetil,  his 
investigations  into  Zoroas- 
trianism,  119,  120 

ECLIPSES,  95 

Enthymues  Zigabenus,  an 
opponent  of  Islam,  249 


FASTING  unknown  in  Zoro- 

astrianism,  138 
Forbes,    John,    of  Corse,  a 

writer  on  Muhammadanism, 

249 
Fravashis,    or    souls    of  the 

dead,  129 

GANGES,  pilgrimages  to  the, 

59 
Garotmana,    the    "house  of 

song,"  131-132 
Gathas  or  sacred  books,  129, 

141-143,  149,  150 
Gayatu  prayer,  52 
Geography   as  found  in  the 

books  of  the  Hindus,  94 
Gonds,  29 
"Gospel    of  the    Infancy," 

218 

HEBREW  influence  on  the  Per- 
sian religion,  144-145 

Hell  in  Hinduism,  65  ;  the 
abode  of  the  wicked,  56 ; 
its  locality,  132;  hell  of 
the  Parsls,  157-159 

Heraclius  invades  Persia, 
117,  118 

Hill  and  Forest  races  of  India, 
their  religion,  251-268 

Hinduism,  early  appearance 
of,  in  N.W.  India,  42 ; 
its  distinctive  characteristic 
of  caste,  1 8,  62  and  ». ; 
notes  on  caste,  80,  190; 
nature  worship,  44 ;  the 
gods  Agni  and  Soma,  45  ; 
reverence  for  the  Dawn, 


282 


INDEX 


46,  56  ;  Varuna,  the  god 
of  heaven,  46  ;  Indra  takes 
the  place  of  Varuna,  147  ; 
the  Vedas  and  their  con- 
tents, 44-51  ;  demon  wor- 
ship, 51-52  ;  offerings  and 
sacrifices,  53  -  55;  the 
ritual  becomes  more  elabo- 
rate, 55,  71  ;  gods  innu- 
merable, 55,  60,  61,  68, 
70 ;  difference  between 
ancient  and  modern  Hin- 
duism, 57  ;  introduction 
of  transmigration,  58;  pil- 
grimages, 59,  60 ;  reve- 
rence for  rivers,  59;  animal 
sacrifices, 63-64;  ascetism, 
157;  the  incarnations  of 
Vishnu,  64,  65,  199;  the 
burning  of  widows,  66 ; 
condition  of  women  in 
Hinduism,  67  ;  mode  of 
worship,  67  ;  the  place  of 
philosophy  in  Hinduism, 
71-80;  Hindu  sects,  8 1  ; 
the  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity on  Hinduism,  26- 
28  ;  points  of  resemblance 
between  Christianity  and 
Hinduism,  87-93 ;  Hindu 
religious  societies  and  their 
attitude  towards  Chris- 
tianity, 27,  28 ;  recent 
Hindu  reformers,  I  oo ; 
revival  of  the  religion, 
200 ;  Muhammadan  treat- 
ment of  Hindus,  235.  See 
a/so  Atharva  Veda,  Rig 
Veda,  etc. 


Hinen    Thsang,    a   Chinese 

pilgrim,  83 
Homa,    a   sacred   plant,    its 

place  in  the  Avesta,   128, 

'33>  159 

Horses,  sacrifice  of,  53,  151 
Human  sacrifices,   53,  266- 

268 

Hunter,  Sir  William,  276 
Hymns    or    Vedas    of    the 

Hindus,    44-51     and    «. 

See    also    Atharva   Veda, 

Rig  Veda,  Vedas 

IDOLATRY,  prevalence  of,  55, 
60,  61,  68,  70 

Ignorance,  eternity  of,  73 

India,  and  Britain's  respon- 
sibility, 15,  30,  31 ;  foreign 
invaders,  196,  197  ;  re- 
ligion of  the  Hill  and  Forest 
tribes,  29, 2  5 1 ;  the  coming 
salvation  of  India,  31-32, 
36  ;  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity, 33  ;  difficulties  to 
be  faced  by  converts,  34  ; 
the  duty  of  the  Church 
towards  India,  37-41 

Indra  supplants  Varuna  in  the 
worship  of  the  Hindus,  47, 
125  ;  the  reason  for  the 
change,  47-48 

JAINISM,  reverence  for  life  its 
chief  characteristic,  1 9, 
205,  206 ;  a  race  of 
traders,  19,  206;  outline 
of  its  teaching,  206; 
builders  of  temples,  207  ; 


INDEX 


283 


reforms  recommended    by 

recent  conferences,  208 
Japan,    Buddhism  in,    201  ; 

progress  of  Christianity  in, 

202 
Jewish  influence  in  the  Roman 

world,   26 ;     and   on    the 

Persian  religion,  144,  145 
Joannes  Damascenus,  249 
Juggernaut  temple  at  Puri  in 

Orissa,  59 

KABJR,  a  Hindu  reformer,  his 
teaching,  83 

Karens  of  Burma,  29,  270- 
274 

Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  a  re- 
former of  Hinduism,  27, 
102-106,  109,  no 

K  ha  sis  of  Assam,  29 

Khonds  of  Orissa,  29 

Kols,  29 

Koran.     See  Quran 

Krishna,  an  incarnation  of 
Vishnu,  199 

LAMAISM  of  Tibet,  202-203 
Lepchas  of  the  Himalayas,  29 
Life,   sanctity  of,   according 
to     Buddha,     191,     195, 
197  ;  and  in  Jain  ism,  205 
Lully,   Raymond,  an    oppo- 
nent of  Muhammadanism, 
250 

MAHABHARATA,  88,  89,  91 
Mahmud  of  Ghazni,  the  in- 
vader of  India,   22,  235, 


Manu,  the  ancestor  of  the 
human  race,  65 

Marathas,  opposed  to  Mu- 
hammadanism, 22 

Marriage  according  to  the 
Avesta,  138 

Martel,  Charles,  defeats  the 
Saracens  at  Tours,  233 

Mecca  pilgrimage,  223  ;  its 
evil  effects,  225 

Missions,  the  necessity  for 
earnest  missionary  effort, 
11713*  37.  240,  245; 
Britain's  responsibility  to- 
wards India,  1 5,  30, 
3 1  ;  necessity  for  missions 
among  the  Muhammadans, 
240,  245  ;  mission  work 
among  the  Hill  Arrians, 
268  ;  the  Karens  of  Bur- 
ma, 270-273  ;  and  the 
Sandals,  etc.,  274 

MirzaGhulam  Ahmad,claim8 
to  be  the  Messiah,  238 

Mithra,  worship  of,  127 

Mithraic  mysteries,  119 

Moravian  missions,  12,  40 

Muhammad,  his  early  life, 
209-211;  claims  to  have 
received  a  revelation,  113, 
219  ;  the  character  of  his 
preaching,  215;  his  claims, 
215;  begins  his  military 
career  at  Medina,  216; 
his  later  years,  216-221 

Muhammadanism,  how  the 
Quran  was  acquired,  221  ; 
the  nature  of  its  contents, 
221-225;  the  religion 


284 


INDEX 


divided  into  dogmatic  and 
practical,  223  ;  evil  results 
of  the  Mecca  pilgrimages, 
225  ;  duties  of  the  pilgrims, 
225-226;  the  condition 
of  women  under  Muham- 
madanism,  226 ;  slavery 
sanctioned,  226 ;  zealous 
for  the  obtaining  of  con- 
verts, 21-23,  82>  227» 
229,  240;  Paradise  the 
reward  of  the  faithful,  228- 
229;  the  chief  factors  of 
its  success,  230 ;  merci- 
less towards  the  infidel, 
235  ;  the  religion  as  in 
India  at  the  present  day, 
236 ;  the  number  of  ad- 
herents, 21,  236;  geogra- 
phical extent,  21,  22; 
effect  of  education  on,  236, 
239>  243  5  the  power  of 
the  religious  Orders,  241  ; 
no  hope  for  its  civilisation, 
242  ;  the  future  of  Mu- 
hammadanism,  243-246  ; 
note  on,  246-248 ;  con- 
troversy on,  249 

NANAK,  founder  of  the  Sikh 

religion,  24,  83 
Naths  or  evil  spirits,  273 
Nirvana,  189,  190 

ORAONS,  29 

Outram,  Sir  James,  subdues 
the  Bhils,  277,  278 

PANTHEISM  of  India,  44,  70, 
74-77 


Paramhansa  Mandali,  a  society 
for  religious  enquiry,  108 

Parliament  of  Religions  at 
Chicago,  77 

Persia  invaded  by  Arabs,  19- 
20,  113,  124;  refugees 
settle  in  Western  India, 
20 ;  its  ancient  grandeur, 
112-113,  ^5*  and  it8 
decline,  166 

Philosophy's  place  in  Hin- 
duism, 71-80 

Pilgrimages  to  holy  places, 
_59-6o 

Prathana  Samaj,  or  Prayer 
Society  of  Bombay,  28 

Prayers  for  the  dead,  132; 
the  three  great  prayers  in 
the  Avesta,  136;  prayers 
unknown  in  Buddhism, 
193  ;  prayer  as  performed 
in  Tibet,  203,  204 

Precepts  of  Jesus,  27,  101 

Puranas,  58 

Puri,  in  Orissa,  a  celebrated 
holy  place  for  pilgrims,  59 

QURAN,  how  it  was  brought 
to  Muhammad,  221  ; 
various  opinions  on  the 
book,  221  ;  its  style,  222, 
246 ;  its  strength  and 
weakness,  224;  its  claims 
of  finality,  228 

RAJPUTS  oppose  the  advance 

of  Islam,  22 
Rama,     an     incarnation     of 

Vishnu,   199 


INDEX 


Rammohan  Rai's  Precepts  of 
Jesus,  27,  IOI 

Ranjit  Singh,  ruler  of  the 
Punjaub,  25 

Rig  Veda  of  the  Hindus, 
44-49 ;  on  the  nature  of 
the  eoul  and  the  fate  of 
the  wicked,  56  ;  its  philo- 
sophy, 71 

Rishabha,  the  founder  of 
Jainism,  205-207 

Rivers  reverenced  by  the 
Hindus,  59 

Runjit  Singh,  nine  women 
burnt  on  his  funeral  pile, 
66 

SACRIFICES.        See      Animal 
Sacrifices:  Human  Sacri- 
fices 
Saktas,   worshippers   of   the 

wives  of  the  gods,  94 
Sama  Veda  of  the  Hindus,  49 
Sanhita,    or    hymns   of    the 

Hindus,  48 
Sanskrit     MSS.    in    Japan, 

83-87 
Santals    and    their    religion, 

274,  275;  note  on,  276 
Science  of  the  Hindus,  94 
Sea,  the,  propitiated,  152 
Sects  of  the  Hindus,  8 1 
Shanars,    the,    of    southern 

India,  their  religion,  259 
Shapur   II.   a  foe  to  Chris- 
tianity, 117 

Sikhs,  origin  of  their  religion, 
24;  opposed  to  Muham- 
madanism,  22 


Siva,    92,   93 ;    Saiva  sects, 

81,82 

Snake-worship,  50 
Soma,  a  drink  of  the  gods, 

45,  52>  53>  56,  198 
Soul,    the,    as   described   by 

the  Rig  Veda,  56,  73,76; 

its     place     in    the    Pars! 

religion,  157 
Spenta  Armaiti,  earth  spirit, 

129 
Storrs,    Rev.    Mr,    of   the 

C.M.S.  Mission,  276 
Students'  Volunteer  Mission- 
ary    Union     Conference, 

38-39 
Sufiism,  note  on,  248 

TANTRAS,  93 

Temples,  61,  207 

Theosophy  in  Benares,  96 

Tibet,  method  of  performing 
prayers  in,  203,  204 

Todas  of  the  Nielgherries, 
29,  269 

Transmigration,  introduction 
of,  into  Hinduism,  58 ; 
and  into  Buddhism,  188 

Travancore  and  Caste  ob- 
servances, 63  and  n. 

UPANISHADS,  49  ;  their  pessi- 
mism and  pantheism,  70- 
72 

Ushas,  or  the  Dawn,  wor- 
shipped by  the  Hindus,  46, 
56 

VARUNA,  the  heaven  god,  125, 


286 


INDEX 


143;  his  attributes,  46; 
supplanted  by  Indra,  147 

Vayu,  spirit  of  the  wind,  128 

Vedanta  philosophy,  71-80 

Vedanta  Sara,  72 

Vedas  of  the  Hindus,  44-46  ; 
48,  107  ;  the  Rig  Veda, 
44-49,  56-71  ;  the  Sama 
Veda,  49  ;  the  Yajur  Veda, 
50 ;  the  Atharva  Veda, 
50-51  and  n.,  56;  Vedas 
of  Ceylon,  29 

Vishnu,  92  ;  his  incarnations, 
64-65,  199  ;  Vaishnava 
sects,  8 1 

Vishtaspa,  king  of  Bactria, 
140,  141,  170-172 

WARTHANA  Sabha,  a  prayer 

society,  109 
Welsh  Presbyterian  Mission, 

275 

Widows,  burning  of,  66 
Wind  spirit,  128 
Women,    condition   of.     See 

Hinduism,  Muhammadan- 

ism,  Zoroastrianism 

XERXES  and  animal  sacrifice, 
'5' 

YAJUR  Veda,  50 

Yama,  ancestor  of  the  human 

race,  52,  56 

Yazatas  or  angels,  127,  146 
Yogis'  methods  for  attaining 

to  the  divine  nature,  74- 

75  ;  and  n. 


ZOROASTER  and  his  times, 
122,  140,  145;  note  on, 
168 

Zoroastrianism,  or  religion  of 
the  Parsis,  19,  112; 
Persia's  ancient  grandeur, 
112,  113;  invasion  by  the 
Arabs,  20,  113,  124; 
Persian  refugees  seek  a 
home  in  India,  113-114; 
early  history  of  the  ancient 
faith,  115,  122-124;  the 
reverence  for  fire  and  light, 
20,  146,  159-161,  171  ; 
the  gods  and  their  attri- 
butes, 126-129  >  eyil 
spirits,  130,  146,  147  ;  the 
struggle  between  good  and 
evil,  130-131  ;  the  sacred 
fire,  132-133  ;  prayers  for 
the  dead,  132;  offerings 
and  sacrifices,  133-134; 
cleanliness  and  defilement, 
134,  139;  initiatory  rite, 
135;  ceremonial  at  death, 
135;  the  three  great 
prayers  in  the  Avesta, 
136;  fasting  unknown, 
138  ;  marriage  and  agri- 
culture commended,  138, 
139;  the  sacred  books, 
116,  119-122,  124,  141, 
142,  169 ;  conflict  be- 
tween the  faiths  of  India 
and  Persia,  143-144 ; 
Hebrew  influence  on,  144- 
1 46 ;  the  great  divisions 
of  good  and  evil,  1 46- 1 48  ; 
conception  of  evil,  148- 


INDEX 


287 


150,  153-159;  innumer- 
able objects  of  worship, 
150;  animal  sacrifice,  151- 
152;  the  doctrine  of  the 
soul,  157;  method  of 
worship,  159-161  ;  con- 
dition of  women  under 
Zoroastrianism,  163  ;  dis- 
posal of  the  dead,  161  ; 


summary  of  Zoroastrianism, 
162  ;  the  influence  of 
Christianity  on,  117,  163- 
165 ;  the  question  of 
proselytising,  166-167  ; 
Parsls  in  Persia,  173  ; 
investigations  of  DuPerron, 
119-121. 


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